In today’s global community, the Iranian carpet has a worthy position to declare Iran to others. Iranian carpet is a fluffy mat which is woven using silk, cotton, wool and coat according to the traditions and rituals of each region of Iran.

Many of the archeologists believe that the oldest carpet of the world which is called Pazyryk and now is kept in The State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg with the antiquity of about 400 years B.C. is an Iranian carpet woven in Achaemenid Empire (330-550 B.C.). Although there is not any salient sample from Sasanian Empire (224-650 A. D.), based on the proofs it can be said that Iranian carpet was globally valid and famous in this era. In this regard, the most obvious sample is the famous carpet of Baharestan which has been mentioned in different historical sources. Many of the travelers who visited Iran in Islamic period have pointed out to the carpets of different regions of Iran and finally, in Safavid Dynasty (1501-1722 A. D.) the Iranian carpet was promoted from a rural art/ industry to a national activity and turned into a prominent part of Iran economy.

From the Safavid Dynasty onwards, the valuable samples of the Iranian carpet can be observed in different museums of the world, for example the Ardabil carpet which was woven for the tomb of Sheikh Safi al-Din Ardabili, the great ancestor of the Safavid, it is kept in Victoria and Albert Museum in London.  In this period, Kashan dealt with many orders due to goodness and elegance of the carpets which were produced there and manufacture of brocaded carpets woven with gold and silver threads was flourished upon the orders of other countries specially Poland.

In Qajar Dynasty (1794-1925 A. D.) and by the boom of European markets, a lot of carpet-weaving workshops were established in different cities of Iran like Tabriz, Kerman, Mashhad, Kashan and other cities and the Iranian carpets were exported to the Europe. On the whole it must be said that the most prominent centers of carpet weaving in Iran were Isfahan, Tabriz, Ardebil, Qom, Kashan, Nain, Kerman, Yazd, Mashhad and Hamedan from the past. It is worth mentioning that in 2010 the skill of carpet weaving of Fars and Kashan were globally registered as the spiritual heritage by UNESCO World Heritage Convention. Besides, in 2015 Tabriz was known as global city of handmade carpet.

Designs in Iranian Carpets

In addition to its decorative aspect, designs of the Iranian carpets attempt to reflect Iranian identity, beliefs and goals. These designs were divided into 3 general patterns: plant designs, animal designs and human designs from among them, plant designs are the most frequent ones used in Iranian carpets. The most important plant designs in Iranian traditional arts including carpet design are Eslimi (Arabesque) and Khatai (Floral).

Eslimi: Eslimi is derived from the word “Islamic” and points out to the interwoven lines of plants with spiral foliage. Although there are proofs which show the use of eslimi designs before the history, using it developed in Islamic period, especially in Safavid Dynasty. The base of eslimi design is nature, stems and leaves. Eslimi is a design consisting of rotational arcs, stems, ties and branches and has different types.

Khatai: it is basically a design with main and perpetuated form of flower bush, leaf or blossom. In khatai design, fewer broken lines can be observed and are mostly curved, they connect flowers to each other through proportionate tortuosity. As these lines picture the branches of tree, the more they get far from the main body, the narrower they will be. The most important khatai flowers are Shah Abbasi and Botteh.

• Shah Abbasi: a design in carpet which was soared in Safavid Dynasty. The main feature of Shah Abbasi flower is the stem drawn at the end of flower and is used as 5, 7 and sometimes 12-petal flower. It is the most perfect type of khatai and its design is retrieved from lily and pomegranate flowers which was common in Iranian arts from the past, a typical example of using this design can be seen in Persepolis which was converted into Shah Abbasi flower through a lot of manipulations.
• Botteh: it is an abstract design and the Iranian believe it is retrieved from cypress tree  as it was a sacred tree in ancient Iran, its natural samples and not decorative ones can be observed in relief designs of Persepolis. Besides, cypress tree is a symbol of endurance and freedom among the Iranian and in this period Botteh design was used decoratively which was similar to the bent cypress and in its evolutionary stages, with respect to the artist’s taste and creativity of each region and cultural history of Iran, it is currently known as paisley.  Some individuals believe that Botteh is created from birds’ feather which was used by the Iranian kings on their hats.

Different Parts of Iranian Carpet Infographic
Infographic by Negar Ganji

Different Parts of Carpet

Selvedge of Carpet: it is the surrounding part of carpet which is usually designed and woven in a wide or narrow way. The selvedges lead to a special organization and beauty which are like a frame. An ordinary selvedge consists of three parts: one main selvedge and two subsidiary selvedges.

• Main Selvedge: the wide selvedge is located between narrow selvedges and forms the collection of carpet selvedges with them. Usually in wide selvedge, the motifs used in carpets are also applied. The pattern and design of this selvedge is commensurate with background of the carpet. In wide selvedge, different designs and inscriptions are used and characteristics of the carpet including name of carpet weaver, name of client, date and place of weaving are registered as well.
• Subsidiary Selvedge: it is located in two sides of main selvedge and is usually decorated with tiny geometric and floral designs.

Lachak: the four corners of the carpet are called lachak and if there is harmony between lachak and toranj with similar designs, the design of carpet is called lachak – toranj.

Toranj: the shape located in the center of carpet is called toranj. They are usually in the form of circle, diamond and oval. They are usually accompanied with sar-toranj which make the carpet more attractive. The dimensions of toranj are different in various carpets and their bigness or smallness depends on type and design of the carpet.

Sar-toranj: it is connected to the central toranj from top and bottom of the carpet. Many of the carpet designers call it “Shamseh” as well.

Katibeh (Inscription): in some carpets, there is a part between toranj and sar-toranj which is called katibeh, name of some individuals who are related to the design of carpet will be designed and registered in katibeh.

Zamineh (Background): different parts of the carpet such as flowers, branches, animals and geometric shapes are woven and registered on a background which specify the main color of the carpet.

Gelim Baaf: in order to preserve the durability of the carpet, its upper and lower parts are woven with chains which are called gelim baaf.

Risheh (Fringe): white threads woven to the width of both sides of the carpet.

Shirazeh (Binder): the longitudinal sides of the carpet which are sewed for more protection of the main part of the carpet.

What was explained above is related to the commonest design of the carpet in Iran i.e. lachak toranj (corner-medallion) but based on the classification of Iran carpet company, the main designs of the Iranian carpets are: designs of ancient works and Islamic buildings, Shah Abbasi, Eslimi, Afshan (overall flower), Eghtebaasy, Bandi, Bottheh, Derakhti (Tree), Turkmen (Bokhara), Shekargah (Hunting), Ghabi, Golfarang, Goldani (Vase), Mahi Dar Ham, Mehrabi (Prayer), Moharamat (Striped), Hendesi (geometric), ili and Talfighi (mingle).

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Bisotun Inscription – Hersin, Kermanshah Province, Iran

Iranian languages are divided into three historical stages: 1. Old Iranian, 2. Middle Iranian, and 3. New Iranian.

Old Iranian

Old Iranian languages that were spoken since Iranians were separated from other people of Aryan or Indo-European race in the second millennium BCE. These languages were dominant in all lands of Ancient Iran until the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BCE. These languages include Avestan, Sakan, Median, and Old Persian among which only written text from Old Persian and Avestan are still extant.

Middle Iranian

Middle Iranian languages were prevalent since the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BCE until centuries after Sassanid Empire was overthrown in 651 CE. Some written texts are left from this group of languages divided into Western Middle Iranian and Eastern Middle Iranian.

Western Middle Iranian include Parthian (also known as Pahlawani or Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian (also known as Pahlavi or Sassanid Pahlavi). Nonetheless, Eastern Middle Iranian languages were prevailed until the 13^th century CE and comprise Bactrian, Khwarazmian, Sogdian, and Saka languages.

New Iranian languages

New Iranian languages gradually became dominant in various parts of Iran after the Arab conquest. Although some of New Iranian languages were spoken concurrent with some Middle Iranian languages, some structural progresses differentiated them from each other.

Iranian Languages at a Glance
Infographic by Parinaz Ghashghaie

Farsi

Farsi is the most important Iranian language. It has been the official language of the Iranian since Saffarid dynasty (9th century) and has been gradually replaced with other languages of middle Iran and it is common in various regions of the world, from India to Europe and from Aral Sea to Persian Gulf. In 10 th century, Farsi was developed in India and Asia Minor by Ghaznavid and Seljuq Dynasties respectively. Farsi language was also common in Ottoman Empire and some of their kings composed Farsi poems. As the colonialism spread in eastern countries, the importance and dominance of Farsi language was reduced. Today, Dari Perdian is common in Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Iran. Since early 20th century, Farsi language found a separate path in each of these countries. The common Farsi language which is currently in use in Tajikistan, there are many Russian words and it is written with Russian alphabet as well. There are Pashto words in current Farsi language of Afghanistan as well as French words in common Farsi language of Iran.

Other New Iranian languages and dialects

Based on geographical and structural affinities, other New Iranian languages and dialects, which count hundreds, are divided into Western and Eastern New Iranian. Western New Iranian languages and dialects involve:

1. Central Iran dialects (prevalent in Isfahan, Tehran, Hamadan, and Yazd regions)
2. Languages and dialects of the Caspian bank (Gilaki, Mazanderani, and dialects of Semnan region)
3. Languages and dialects of Northwest Iran (Tati, Talysh, and Azerbaijani)
4. Languages and dialects of Southwest Iran (Sivandi, Lurish, and dialects of Fars province)
5. Southeast Iran Languages and dialects (Larestani, Bashagardi, Kumzari)
6. Kurdish
7. Zaza and Gorani
8. Balochi.

Eastern New Iranian Languages and dialects include:

1. Ossetian
2. Pashto
3. Ormuri and Parchi
4. Munji
5. Yaghnobi
6. Languages and dialects of Pamir region.

Local languages are spoken in local media of varied regions but, Farsi is the only educational language in all Iranian schools and universities.

Farsi writing system

Cuneiform was the earliest writing system in Iran. Iranians then used Parthian Pahlavi scripts in the Parthian era and Sassanian Pahlavi scripts during the Sassanid era. After the rise of Islam, Farsi scripts were shaped. Farsi alphabet has the same basis as Arabic alphabet. However, in the Farsi Alphabet four novel letters are added; /ɡ/(گ), /tʃ/ (چ), /p/ (پ), /ʒ/(ژ). Although modern Iranian calligraphy borrows from Kufic Arabic, Iranians have been a major role in the development of Islamic calligraphy. Iranians developed Farsi alphabet based on their language needs. Since the ninth century CE, Pahlavi script was gradually substituted with Persian alphabet because of its usage in court letters. Persian alphabet has 32 scripts.

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Pasargadae was the earliest capital of the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great (600 – 530 BCE) who had ordered its construction. Pasargadae was the capital of the Achaemenid dynasty until Cambyses II (559 – 522 BCE) moved it to Susa. The site covers 1.6 square kilometers and includes the Mausoleum of Cyrus II, two royal palaces with gardens, and forts of Tall-e Takht.

The most prominent monument in Pasargadae complex is the tomb of Cyrus. The tomb’s height reaches almost eleven meters consisting of two main parts; a high plinth composed of six receding steps similar to Mesopotamian or Elamite ziggurats, and a tomb chamber with a steep-pitched gable roof resembling Urartu tombs of an earlier period. The main decoration on the tomb is a rosette design over the main entrance door.

Two royal palaces of Cyrus; residential Palace P and audience Palace S put revolutionary impacts on the architectural history of the ancient Near East. While a single-focal axis was dominated in the region for millennia, a symmetric four-sided structure with no principal axis and no fixed focal point was introduced in Pasargadae’s palaces. This structure is considered as the prototype of Persian Gardens. The superb technical application of elements of Lydo-Ionian stone-working including anathyrosis joints was also another architectural revolution in the area. Before then, columned halls were built with mud-brick walls and wood columns.

Audience Palace S consists of a central rectangular columned hall with two rows of four columns, each wall opening to a portico. The plan of Palace P resembles Palace S, the latter has more but smaller columns supported by exceptionally finely-made, horizontally- fluted tori on black and white plinths.

Discovered Inscriptions in Pasargadae are written in Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian cuneiform. Cyrus had introduced himself in one of the inscriptions, but since the Old Persian cuneiform was invented in the reign of Darius, researchers suggest that Darius completed several elements of Cyrus’ unfinished constructions purportedly to tie himself to the heritage of Cyrus. Located at the eastern edge of the Palace, Gate R is visible with a three-meter carved human figure with wings inspired by Assyrian sculpture.

The fortified and solid stone-made platform of Tall-e Takht (or Takht-e Madar-e Soleyman, the Throne of the Mother of Solomon) was built on a massive hill. A fourteen-meter high tower built almost exclusively of finely cut blocks of white limestone known as Zendan-e Soleyman (Solomon’s Prison) was also located in the north of the palaces. Sacred area, Tangeh Bolaghi, and Mozaffari caravanserai (Islamic era) are among other key constituents of the Pasargadae.

This work was globally registered in 2004.

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In some parts of the province people, especially Qashqai tribes, speak Turkish, while in some other parts, the Arabs speak Arabic. Because of the geographical extent of the province, its climate varies in the northern and southern regions. In highlands, the climate is mild; in the valleys and lowlands, it is moderate and warm, while in the southern parts of the province, the winters and summers are moderate and hot, respectively.

Historically, the Persian who formed their own local government under the support of the Medes in Pars (current Fars), became gradually more powerful and eventually Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire (550-330 B.C.), overthrew the Median Empire (678-549 B.C.). Cyrus and his successors formed a vast empire of the time and developed their power using a set of organized and decisive laws. The Achaemenid kings established and chose several cities as their capital such as Takht-e Jamshid or Persepolis, Susa, Babylon, and Ecbatana (Hamedan).

The palaces of the Achaemenid rulers are among the most significant masterpieces of ancient architecture, which their remains are in the ancient city of Parseh. When Babylon and Susa were under siege, Alexander the Macedonian attacked Persepolis, plundering, killing people, and firing the Achaemenid palaces. Years later during the Parthian Empire (247 B.C. – 224 A.D.), Darabgerd, a city in Fars province, was one of the centers of power. As the Parthian Empire declined, Ardashir Babakan rose in revolt, the man who finally founded the Sassanid Empire (224-651 A.D.).

Ya’qūb-i Layth-i Saffārī (Jacob) was the first Emir of the Saffarid Dynasty (861-1003) who seized Fars and chose Shiraz as his capital. Several dynasties including Buyid (934-1062), Seljuk (1037-1194), Salghurids (1148-1282), Mongol (1206-1368), Muzzafarid (1314-1393), Safavid (1501-1736), Afsharid, (1736-1796), and Zand (1751-1794) dominated also over the region. During the governance of Karim Khan Zand (reign: 1751-1779), a magnificent peace and prosperity were established in Fars, while in contrast, the province was damaged and destroyed significantly later due to the wars by Lotf Ali Khan Zand (reign: 1789-1794) and Mohammad Shah Qajar (reign: 1834-1848).

The land of Fars, both during the pre-Islamic and Islamic era, was the center of civilization and culture, containing a great number of historical monuments. Fars was in fact the first center where Persian civilization and culture were developed.

Out of its remained historical monuments and buildings include Persepolis, Pasargad, the historical city of Istakhr, Naqsh-e Rustam, Bishapur, Shapur cave, and the palaces and fire temples of Ardeshir. Importantly, Persepolis, Pasargad, Eram Garden, The Sassanid Archeological Landscape have been registered in UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The collection of Zandieh and Qajar constructs including Arg of Karim Khan, mosque and bathroom of Vakil, Nasir al-Mulk Mosque, and Qavam House as well as the shrine of Ahmad ibn Musa (Shah Cheragh) are among other important tourist attractions in the city of Shiraz.

The most important handicrafts in Fars province include wood carving, carpet weaving, glass blowing (in Meymand city), repoussage, handmade Khorjin (saddle), and Give-Doozi (in the city of Abadeh). Known native foods also include Kufteh Holoo, Kooft Sabzi, Salad Shirazi, Shirin polo (sweet rice), especial Aush for breakfast (Sabzi), Aush Kardeh, and Kalam polo Shirazi (cabbage and rice). When it comes to figures, Mansur al-Hallaj (the Persian mystic and poet) and two valuable Persian poets i.e. Saadi and Hafez are among the past celebrities of Fars province.

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