Mud brick at the ancient Elamite complex of Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat – Khuzestan Province, Iran
Photo by alexreynolds / ShutterStock

By the historic Iran, we mean the time about a century and a half before the Old Persian language was decoded. The decipherment of cuneiform and its alphabet has made a major revolution in reading the ancient inscriptions and scriptures. This helped archeologists understand that the official Iranian history dates back to 2500 years ago which is around the beginning of the Achaemenid era (550-330 B.C.). Before this era, the history of Iran is limited to the civilization of Elam (Elamite: 2700-539 B.C.) and Medes (678-549 B.C.). and their roles in the formation of the first great empire of the world i.e. Achaemenid Empire.

The history and culture of Iran has been always important in the course of world history, mainly because of the country’s geographical location. Each dynasty in Iran has had a great impact on religion, writing, architecture, culture, and the civilization of the ancient world.

The important issue in Iranian history is the relation of nomadic tribes and residents and their effects on the designation and dethronement of rulers. In general, it can be noted that the establishment of new Iranian dynasties happened either by conflicts between indigenous people or by the invasion of foreign tribes/nations. The entry of these tribes into Iran was always accompanied by conflict, war, and bloodshed with the locals. However, they brought their own culture and art to Iran and combined them with the local culture and art as well. The result of this combination was the emergence of a more powerful and advanced government. It should be mentioned that the study of culture and politics in Iran is not possible unless we get to know

Elam

In order to understand historic Iran, we have to start with Elamites, the indigenous people of the Iran plateau. Elamites included large powers in the Middle East such as Babylon, Sumer, and Assyria. The Assyrian inscriptions show the power of Elam and present Iran as a country that has had civilization since 3500 B.C.

Elamites chose Susa as their capital and ruled over the regions of Khuzestan, Lorestan, and Bakhtiari mountains but were overthrown by the Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal in 645 B.C. The folk of Aryan was divided into several tribes once they immigrated to Iran Plateau and each of them scattered in different parts of the Plateau. The most important Aryan tribes were Medes, Persis, and Parthia.

Medes Dynasty

At the beginning of the 7th century B.C., Diocese initiated the Medes Dynasty with Ecbatana as the capital, inhabited in Azerbaijan and Kurdistan. Several years later, they managed to eliminate the great Mesopotamian power i.e. Assyrians, but they were eventually dethroned by the tribe of Persis.

Achaemenid Dynasty

The Persis people established the great Achaemenid Empire ruled first by Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C. During this period, Iran reached its political power peak and its greatest geographical territory. The ruling kings managed to eliminate Babylon and had numerous wars with the Greeks.

At the time of Darius and Xerxes, the Achaemenid Empire was stabilized and reached its climax. However, like any other dynasties, they suffered from internal disputes and decay of power. Eventually, they were dethroned by the Greek army ruled by the Great Alexander in 330 B.C.

Clay impression of Seleucid – National Museum of Iran
Photo by Ibrahim Khadem Bayyat / Publisher: ICHTO

Seleucid Dynasty

After the death of Alexander, his territory was divided among his commanders and Iran fell into the hands of Seleucus and his successors for 73 years. Some historians prefer to call this period the Interval Era because of the introduction of the philhellenic culture (Greek culture) to Iran and its impacts on Iranian art and civilization.

Parthian Dynasty

The Parthian managed gradually to remove some areas from the domination of the Seleucids and eventually, in 247 B.C., Arsaces I founded the Parthian dynasty lasting its power until 224 A.D. i.e. for 471 years. The Parthian government was the only Iranian power that had a Feudal system of governing.

The most salient features of this era were freedom of speech and religious tolerance. The Parthians are also known for their numerous attrition battles against Romans; the wars that were mostly fruitless and did nothing but to weaken the country. The Parthian governance which is known as the longest dynasty in Iran was finally destroyed by Ardashir Babakan– the founder of the Sassanid Empire- after about five centuries of the ruling.

Silver coins of Parthain and Sasanian
Photo by Ibrahim Khadem Bayyat / Publisher: ICHTO

Sassanid Dynasty

Sassanid, as the last pre-Islamic dynasty in Iran, came to the throne in the city of Persis whose inhabitants called it Iranshahr and considered themselves the descendants of the Achaemenid. The Sassanid dynasty began its governance around 224 A.D. by Ardashir Babakan but unlike Parthians, it was ruled through a central government.

The official religion in this period was Zoroastrianism that was not separate from the ruling system, leading to high power for the Magus and the Zoroastrian priests. The Sasanians reigned over Iran for 427 years with its Kings interested in luxurious and aristocratic life and as a result, the social gap between commoners and courtiers increased.

Besides, dissatisfaction was appeared among people due to religious rigors of Zoroastrian priests. Finally, the Sassanid government started its period of decline and was finally heavily defeated by the Arabs. With the destruction of Sassanid rule, the Islamic time in Iran began.

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Nasir Al-Mulk Mosque – Shiraz, Fars Province, Iran

The architecture of pre-Islamic Iran is divided into two styles of “Parsian” and “Parthian”.

Parsian Style

it is the first architectural style in Iran starting from Achaemenid era until the invasion of Alexander (from 6th to 4th B.C). Rectangular spaces with columned halls, construction of buildings on platform, introverted style, using wooden ceilings, carved stones, plinth and capital, decoration of entrance and glazed tile in interior sectors are among the main features of Parsian architecture.

Parthian Style

As the name suggests, Parthian Style is the architecture used by the Parthian, it includes diversity in patterns, introverted style, symmetry in construction of palaces and temples, increase in the height of buildings, curved arches and domes, squinches below the domes, using local materials like rubble, adobe, brick, mud, and stucco work.

Iran’s Architecture from the Advent of Islam to Seljuk (6^th to 11^th centuries)

In spite of the advent of Islam, for years, Iran’s architectural style was dependent on the past elements. After that, Muslim artists introduced new forms, buildings, and constructs like mosque, school, bridge, castle and caravanserai with respect to previous artistic features especially Sassanid ones and inspired Islamic mind-set.

At the beginning of Islamic time, more attention was paid to the construction of mosque. The mosques usually had simple structures, but from this time, we witnessed the rise of Muqarnas decorative designs (decorations made of brick, tile, stone, plaster and wood) as an ornament of the mosque. The Muqarnas decorative styles used in Gonbad-e Qabus tower is one of the earliest examples of it in 10th century. Besides, Ribat-i Mahi, contemporary to Gonbad-e Qabus tower, has muddy brick and stucco decorations as well and acts as a precedent for the more lavish decorations of Seljuk and Ilkhanate Eras.

Iran’s Architecture from Seljuk to Timurid (11^th to 15^th Centuries)

Seljuk dynasty (11th century) is one of the most outstanding periods of Iran’s architecture. The construction of schools was popular in this time and many schools were built in the cities of Baghdad, Neyshabur, Marv, Rey and Hyrcania (current Gorgan). The plans of most of the buildings in this era was Four-Iwan design (Chahar Iwani) with stucco and brick as their prominent decorations. Iwan is a rectangular hall or space, usually vaulted, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open. They are mostly build in exterior space of the buildings having entrance/ exit spaces. Different buildings such as mosque, school, tomb and caravanserai were constructed in this era as well. The splendour and glory of Seljuk architecture are completely visible in Jameh mosque of Isfahan. Although, Jameh mosque of Isfahan is the result of continual construction, reconstruction, additions and renovations of 15 centuries of Islamic Era, the most beautiful and important part of the mosque belongs to Seljuk Dynasty. It is interesting to know that the use of tile as a decorative element has become popular since the end of 10th century. The oldest examples are the tiles of Kharraqan towers in Qazvin which were built in Seljuk Dynasty.

Preserving the Seljuk architectural styles including Four-Iwan design, Ilkhanate architecture entered a new stage; Iwan became higher with narrow width and the walls got narrower as well. Decorations like stucco, tile work and brick with special patterns adorned buildings. Mihrabs of Isfahan Jameh Mosque, Urmia and Oshtorjan mosques are the obvious proofs of the mastery in stucco art in that era.

During Timurid dynasty, the art of mosaic tiling reached its zenith, it is the art of the assembling of small pieces of coloured tiles to make an image. Mosques like Goharshad in Mashhad, Blue in Tabriz, Khargerd Ghiasieh School in Khorasan and some buildings in Herat and Bukhara show the importance and application of this art in religious buildings.

In this era, Grand Khorasan in east of Iran played an important role in development of architecture as well. Khorasan was the origin of lots of innovations in architecture that spread it to other parts of the country. Two-Iwan style was used in Khorasan for the first time and it was one of the first cities that the traces of turquoise tile are found in, this style can be observed in Mosques of Zuzan, Gonabad and Forumad.

Iranian Architecture Infographic / Historic Imam Mosque – Isfahan, Isfahan Province, Iran
Photo by Alexandre Rotenberg / Shutterstock
Infographic by Negar Ganji

Iran’s Architecture from Safavid to the Contemporary Era

The 16th and 17th centuries are known as the period of flourishment of Islamic arts in Iran. In the shadow of the support of Safavid’s kings, art and architecture advanced drastically. The majority of buildings in Safavid era such as mosques, schools, and caravanserais were constructed in a four-Iwan style and Muaraq (Mosaic) and Haft Rang (Seven-Coloured) tiles were the main decorations used in the buildings, the template of tiles were square which were glazed and seven colors were used to design them. Calligraphy on tile became common in decoration of religious buildings as well. Public places like mosque, bridge, bathhouse, water reservoir and specially caravanserai were built more than ever. Amin Abad caravanserai in Isfahan, Deh-bid caravanserai on the road of Isfahan to Shiraz and the numerous Abbasi caravanserais built all over the country were important caravanserais of this period.

After the fall of Safavid Dynasty, the same architectural style of that time continued like before but it was not as glorious as before. Kalat Naderi Palace (Khorshid Palace) in Khorasan province (Afsharid era) and Vakil complex in Shiraz (Zandiyeh era) are outstanding buildings of this period. After this period and with the beginning of Qajar Reign, architecture was the centre of attention again. Some of the buildings from Qajar era like Al-Nabi Mosque in Qazvin, the Haj Ali Agha complex in Kerman, Imam Mosque, Sepahsalar Mosque and school in Tehran, as well as Golestan palace are the examples of the breathtaking architecture of Qajar era.

Contemporary Architecture

The contemporary architecture of Iran starts from early 19th century and continues up to now. Architectural structures of buildings in this time were the combination of traditional and western architecture styles which were witnessed in constructs like Shahrbani Palace, Marble Palace and Post Office building of Tehran, or modern architectural style was entirely used.

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One of the most dazzling pre-Islamic attractions of Iran with a history dating back to the Elamite (2700-539 BCE), Achaemenid (550-330 BCE), and Sassanid (224-654 CE) dynasties refers to an ancient necropolis site entitled Naqsh-e Rostam. It is located six kilometers away from Takht-e Jamshid (Persepolis). It should be argued that although Rostam is a mythological character in Shah Nameh, an epic masterpiece of poet Ferdowsi, the rock-reliefs of this ancient site is not of any relation to him.

In fact, the rock reliefs in this site narrate some of the most significant events that happened during the kings of Iran and importantly, Naqsh-e Rostam is a royal necropolis of Achaemenid kings including Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I, and Xerxes I. Their tombs are carved out of the rock in large size at a significant height above the ground. Below the rock tombs of these Achaemenid kings, there are seven rock reliefs depicting large figures of Sassanian monarchs in battles or investitures.

The first rock relief depicts the coronation ceremony of Narsieh (294-304 CE), Shapur’s son, who is taking a diadem (the ring of kingship) from Anahita, the goddess of water. Narsieh was the ruler of Armenia who revolted against Bahram the Third and took sovereignty over Iran.

The second rock relief is placed below Darius the Great’s tomb. It is made of two scenes that are separated from each other with a small line but in general, they show Bahram II’s victory against his enemy. More precisely, it shows Bahram is attacking a mounted Roman enemy while forcing this enemy’s spear. There is a soldier behind Bahram in a formal dressing, who carries a flag that is assumed to be the famous Sassanid flag, about which the Roman Historian Ammianus Marcellinus articulates it is the Red Fire of the Sassanid army. The highlights of the inscription include an armor on horseback and his the quiver that both are artistically carved on the stone. In other parts of the relief, there is a Roman soldier who is trampled underfoot of Bahram’s horse.

The third rock relief of Naqsh-e Rostam narrates the victory of the Sassanian king Shapur I against three Roman emperors including Gordian (who died in the battle), Philip the Arab (who after his defeat had to give a huge booty to Shapur), and Valerian (who organized an attack but was captured with his army). In particular, in this rock relief, Gordian is trampled underfoot of Shapur’s horse while Shapur is on horseback. Besides, Valerian is kneeling down with tied hands in submission in front of the king, while Philip the Arab is holding Shapur’s horse.

This rock relief also shows Kartir as a famous high Zoroastrian priest behind the king, who is paying his respect to the king. The story of this victory is also inscribed in a stone tower structure called Ka’beh Zartosht (on its lower exterior walls) in front of the rock reliefs. Interestingly, the story of this victory is also carved out of the rock in ancient Bishapur City, Fars Province that is, to some extent, a more elaborate version than that of Naqsh-e Rostam.

The fourth rock relief is located under Artaxerxes’ tomb, which belongs to Adur Narseh or his brother Shapur II among his courtiers (not much has been left from this relief). There is also another scene in this relief that belongs to Hurmuz (Hormizd) II, the grandson of Shapur I. It depicts the battle of mounted Hurmuz against a Roman enemy.

The fifth rock relief is below Darius II’s tomb that is around seven meters long and three meters wide. In this scene, a crowned horseback rider has put his spear on the neck of his enemy. The date and the name of the victorious king is not known but archeologists believe it may belong to Shapur II because the crown in this scene is the same as the one in his coins.

The sixth rock-relief belongs to Bahram II and his family that was carved over an Elamite relief. The original Elamite relief made in the first millennium BCE shows the king, queen, and a goddess, introducing as one of the few ancient reliefs that shows the picture of a woman who is not a goddess. Bahram destroyed part of the previous relief to replace it with a scene where he is standing in the middle surrounded by his five family members and courtiers, three of whom are wearing a crown with an eagle sign as a symbol of victory. The king wears a very formal and adorned attire and holds the hilt of a long spear with both hands that represents power.

The seventh rock relief belongs to the investiture of the first king and the founder of the Sassanid Dynasty, Ardeshir I. In this scene, he is taking a diadem (the ring of kingship) from Ahura Mazda (Ohrmazd) while both of them are on horseback. The horses are trampling two bodies: Ahriman or devil as the enemy of goodness and Artabanus V, the last Parthian emperor.

Another important construct in Naqsh-e Rostam is referred to as Ka’beh Zartosht since it was assumed to be linked with Zoroastrianism but in reality, the function of this Achaemenid square tower is not known. The carefully carved stones of the construct with their smooth surface bears witness to the advancement and mastery of the Achaemenian architects and craftsmen. Although the attackers have destroyed it, it is still an important ancient remnant in history. Notably, there is a long inscription in the lower part of the Ka’beh in three languages including Sassanid Pahlavi, Parthian Pahlavi, and Greek. The 2.5×2.5 room of the construct is placed over a square-shaped basis of stone.

The decisive function of this room has yet to be discovered but archeologists believe it may have been a fire temple, a document archive, or a temporary tomb. On the other hand, some believe these hypotheses could not be true because of the large size of the structure and its difficult large stairs. Based on a hypothesis, this structure was meant to be a royal tomb but when Darius the Great decided to use the mountain tombs this place was left for another function. Although this hypothesis has not been proven yet, it has not been rejected either.

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Shush is one of the oldest residential places of the world that is located in Khuzestan province, and was inhabited from 4200 BC. The ancient Shush was chosen as a capital from the time of Elamite to Achaemenian. During Elamite era, the city used to be a religious center and at the time of Achaemenian, it was used as the winter capital. In addition, this area is the witness of two great civilizations, Mesopotamia and the civilization of Iran plateau. The two powerful civilization of the time met here and affected one another; hence, the city includes several number archeological sites belonging to different region and cultures. The mixture of styles and cultures is the most notable feature of the city that tells a lot about the state of the place at its prime.

Ancient city of Shush includes a wide area of diverse architectural structures from prehistoric to Islamic period. The nomination file of the city that was presented to UNESCO consisted of Apadana Palace, East Gate, Hadish, the 15^th City or Imperial City, the Achaemenes Village, the Artaxerxes palace, the Jam-e mosque of Shush, the collection of Islamic monuments, the Acropolis hills and French castle, and was inscribed in 2015. Due to the diversity of places and the fact that they all have a long history, here just a brief introduction to the more famous constructs is presented. Beside the archeological monuments, the stuff of Shush has some features, which is distinguishing from others.

Shush Castel (Acropolis)

Acropolis is a Greek word that shows the importance of the place and used for the highest place in a city. Acropolis castle or Shush castle was constructed by the French archeological group that was headed by Jean-Marie Jacques de Morgan in 1897 for keeping the extraction of archeological findings, and as a dwelling place for the archeological team. This castle was built on the highest place of Shush hills and in form of medieval castles, in shape of trapezius. The base of this structure is bricks gained from Darrius palace and some engraved bricks from Chughazanbil. Before the revolution the castle was used by French, today it is used as an archeological center. Code of Hammurabi and the famous pottery mug of Shush with a mountain goat painted on it were found out this hill.

Apadana

Apadana palace was built by the order of Darrius the great from 515 to 521 AD in Shush on the remnants of the Elamites edifice. The palace walls were built of adobe that were covered with brick facades and its pillars were made of stone. Apadana palace includes reception hall, gateway, haram and courtyards. The interior of the palace used to be decorated with the plan of imperial guard soldiers, winged lions, and lilies that are all kept in museums both foreign and national. The plan of Apadana is like a pavilion with three columned iwan in north, east and west side that each iwan has two rows of six columns. There are also six courtyard connecting the different part of palace that provided the needed light and air circulation in the indoor and outdoor spaces. The central hall of the palace is a square with 58 m long sides and has 36 pillars each 22 m high. Some Significant parts of the Apadana palace caught fire when Artaxerxes I (461 BC) held the throne. Later, when Artaxerxes II (359 BC) became the king, he ordered the palace to be restored. Alexander the great destroyed the entire city in 320 BC.

Royal city

Royal city stands in the south west of Apadana and is a mixture of different eras of history starting from Elamite time and continuing to Achaemenian, Sassanid, pertain, Seleucid and at last to Islamic period. From 1964 to 1967, the site was excavated and studied by professor Ghirshman and during his studies, 15 layers of occupation was discovered that the last layer or 15^th layer belonged to the final years of Elamite ruling. At the end of Achaemenian Dynasty the city was surrounded by a fortified wall that was attached to the Shavur River.

Artaxerxes Palace (Shavur Palace)

The remnants of this palace is located opposite of tomb of Daniel (the prophet) and in the west of Shavur River, and that is where the name Shavur Palace comes from. Artaxerxes palace has a square shape, and was designed with stone pillars, adobe walls and some side facilities. The palace was built during the ruling of Artaxerxes and used to be his residence and seat of government.

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