Mud brick at the ancient Elamite complex of Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat – Khuzestan Province, Iran
Photo by alexreynolds / ShutterStock

By the historic Iran, we mean the time about a century and a half before the Old Persian language was decoded. The decipherment of cuneiform and its alphabet has made a major revolution in reading the ancient inscriptions and scriptures. This helped archeologists understand that the official Iranian history dates back to 2500 years ago which is around the beginning of the Achaemenid era (550-330 B.C.). Before this era, the history of Iran is limited to the civilization of Elam (Elamite: 2700-539 B.C.) and Medes (678-549 B.C.). and their roles in the formation of the first great empire of the world i.e. Achaemenid Empire.

The history and culture of Iran has been always important in the course of world history, mainly because of the country’s geographical location. Each dynasty in Iran has had a great impact on religion, writing, architecture, culture, and the civilization of the ancient world.

The important issue in Iranian history is the relation of nomadic tribes and residents and their effects on the designation and dethronement of rulers. In general, it can be noted that the establishment of new Iranian dynasties happened either by conflicts between indigenous people or by the invasion of foreign tribes/nations. The entry of these tribes into Iran was always accompanied by conflict, war, and bloodshed with the locals. However, they brought their own culture and art to Iran and combined them with the local culture and art as well. The result of this combination was the emergence of a more powerful and advanced government. It should be mentioned that the study of culture and politics in Iran is not possible unless we get to know

Elam

In order to understand historic Iran, we have to start with Elamites, the indigenous people of the Iran plateau. Elamites included large powers in the Middle East such as Babylon, Sumer, and Assyria. The Assyrian inscriptions show the power of Elam and present Iran as a country that has had civilization since 3500 B.C.

Elamites chose Susa as their capital and ruled over the regions of Khuzestan, Lorestan, and Bakhtiari mountains but were overthrown by the Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal in 645 B.C. The folk of Aryan was divided into several tribes once they immigrated to Iran Plateau and each of them scattered in different parts of the Plateau. The most important Aryan tribes were Medes, Persis, and Parthia.

Medes Dynasty

At the beginning of the 7th century B.C., Diocese initiated the Medes Dynasty with Ecbatana as the capital, inhabited in Azerbaijan and Kurdistan. Several years later, they managed to eliminate the great Mesopotamian power i.e. Assyrians, but they were eventually dethroned by the tribe of Persis.

Achaemenid Dynasty

The Persis people established the great Achaemenid Empire ruled first by Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C. During this period, Iran reached its political power peak and its greatest geographical territory. The ruling kings managed to eliminate Babylon and had numerous wars with the Greeks.

At the time of Darius and Xerxes, the Achaemenid Empire was stabilized and reached its climax. However, like any other dynasties, they suffered from internal disputes and decay of power. Eventually, they were dethroned by the Greek army ruled by the Great Alexander in 330 B.C.

Clay impression of Seleucid – National Museum of Iran
Photo by Ibrahim Khadem Bayyat / Publisher: ICHTO

Seleucid Dynasty

After the death of Alexander, his territory was divided among his commanders and Iran fell into the hands of Seleucus and his successors for 73 years. Some historians prefer to call this period the Interval Era because of the introduction of the philhellenic culture (Greek culture) to Iran and its impacts on Iranian art and civilization.

Parthian Dynasty

The Parthian managed gradually to remove some areas from the domination of the Seleucids and eventually, in 247 B.C., Arsaces I founded the Parthian dynasty lasting its power until 224 A.D. i.e. for 471 years. The Parthian government was the only Iranian power that had a Feudal system of governing.

The most salient features of this era were freedom of speech and religious tolerance. The Parthians are also known for their numerous attrition battles against Romans; the wars that were mostly fruitless and did nothing but to weaken the country. The Parthian governance which is known as the longest dynasty in Iran was finally destroyed by Ardashir Babakan– the founder of the Sassanid Empire- after about five centuries of the ruling.

Silver coins of Parthain and Sasanian
Photo by Ibrahim Khadem Bayyat / Publisher: ICHTO

Sassanid Dynasty

Sassanid, as the last pre-Islamic dynasty in Iran, came to the throne in the city of Persis whose inhabitants called it Iranshahr and considered themselves the descendants of the Achaemenid. The Sassanid dynasty began its governance around 224 A.D. by Ardashir Babakan but unlike Parthians, it was ruled through a central government.

The official religion in this period was Zoroastrianism that was not separate from the ruling system, leading to high power for the Magus and the Zoroastrian priests. The Sasanians reigned over Iran for 427 years with its Kings interested in luxurious and aristocratic life and as a result, the social gap between commoners and courtiers increased.

Besides, dissatisfaction was appeared among people due to religious rigors of Zoroastrian priests. Finally, the Sassanid government started its period of decline and was finally heavily defeated by the Arabs. With the destruction of Sassanid rule, the Islamic time in Iran began.

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Persepolis (derived from Greek Pérsēs and pólis meaning the Persian city) or Takht-e Jamshid (literally meaning Throne of Jamshid – an Iranian mythological king) is the remains of Achaemenid (550 – 330 BCE) palace that Darius I, known as Darius the Great (522 – 486 BCE) began its construction in 518 BC after creating a vast terrace on the foot of Rahmat (Mercy) mountain. The buildings on the platform occupied an area of about 135,000 km2; the construction of the palaces and terraces began under the command of Darius I, and were continued in the era of Xerxes (496 – 465 BCE), Artaxerxes I (465 – 424 BCE), and Artaxerxes III (359 – 338 BCE). After the invasion of the Alexander of Macedon in 334 BC towards the east, Iranian forces were defeated, the Achaemenid dynasty was overturned, and Persepolis was destroyed.

The goal of Darius was not to create an administrative and/or political center, but a center for Iranian festivity and ceremonials. Some palaces on the terrace were residences for the imperial family and some were allocated to reception and formal greetings.

Persepolitan architecture is distinguished for its use of the quadrilateral spaces and Persian columns, construction of buildings on the terrace, application of wooden ceilings, cut and carved stones, column bases, and capitals, designing portals, and utilization of glazed tiles in interior spaces. It is interesting to know that no mortar is used in the construction of Persepolis and metal clips are employed to join stones together.

Persepolis, Gate of all nations – Marvdasht, Fars Province, Iran

Columns are a distinctive feature of Persepolis. Researchers believe that the combination and integration of various artistic practices including Greek, Egypt, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and in particular local style in the construction of Persepolis had led to the creation of columns with distinctive capitals that cannot be found in any other cultures. The height of some columns reaches up to 20 meters with capitals of zoomorphic and legendary creatures.

The main buildings at Persepolis include the Great Stairway, the Gate of All Nations, the Apadana, the Hall of Hundred Columns, the Tripylon Hall, the Hadish Palace, the Tachara, the Queen’s Palace, and the Imperial Treasury.

Plan of Perspolis
Infographic by Parinaz Ghashghaie

The Great Stairway, the Gate of All Nations

The entrance to the palace is located northwest of the yard and is accessible by a double-reversed staircase. Each staircase includes 111 stairs of 6.7 meters long, 10 cm height, and 38 cm wide. By climbing the stairs, the gate of all nations with a pair of lamassus (guardian winged-bulls with the heads of bearded men) show off. A trilingual inscription (in Elamite, Old Persian, and Babylonian) in the name of Xerxes is carved above each doorway jamb praising Ahura Mazda, the creator and sole God of Zoroastrianism, and introducing Xerxes and the magnificence of the building. The gate opened to a waiting room for representatives of different nations to precede their group for meeting Achaemenid kings. Archaeologists believed that this hall was completed at the time of Xerxes (496 – 465 BCE).

Apadana

By crossing the Gate of all Nations and the waiting hall, we arrive at the Apadana Hall that was the largest and most imposing palace of Persepolis; the audience palace of Darius I (522 – 486 BCE). It consisted of the main square hall of thirty-six columns, and three porticos each with twelve columns on the north, west and east sides. Its columns soared to a height of 20 meters and of the seventy-two columns once supporting the roof of the palace, only thirteen are still standing and the rest are fallen and broken.

Two grand Perspolitian symmetrical stairways were built in the north and east sides, nonetheless, the northern stairway demolished over time. Stone carvings decorate these monumental stairways, showing delegates of the 23 subject nations of the Persian Empire paying tribute to Darius I, giving him presents.

Hall of Hundred Columns

The Throne Hall is the second largest building of Persepolis. This 70×70 square meter hall was started by Xerxes I and completed by his son Artaxerxes I (465 – 424 BCE). Its eight stone doorways are decorated on the north and south with reliefs of throne scenes, and on the west and east with scenes depicting the king combating monsters. Researchers believe that the Throne Hall was used mainly for receptions representatives of all the subject nations of the empire.

Tripylon Hall

Council Hall or Central Hall is located in the southeastern corner of Apadana and the middle of other buildings. It is called Tripylon because it includes three grand gates. One of gates is sculptured with the representation of Darius I seated under the royal baldachin, Xerxes I, standing behind him, both on a monumental throne which is being carried into the hall upon the raised arms and hands of twenty-eight representatives of subject nations of the empire. The Central Hall opened to two columned porticos on the north and south. Reliefs of stairways suggest that the Throne Hall was used mainly for receptions for military commanders.

Hadish Palace

The Palace of Xerxes occupied the highest level of terrace and it was severely burned when Alexander of Macedon destroyed Persepolis as a revenge for his invasion of Athens. It had a thirty-six columned square hall, a twelve-columned portico on the north, a long balcony on the south, and some storage and guardrooms.

The Tachara

It is the oldest palace of Persepolis located in the south of the Apadana and some call it the Mirror Hall for its glossy rocks. Its main hall has a rectangular plan of 12 stone-made columns surrounded by smaller rooms and chambers. Inscriptions and Reliefs like the battle of “Lion and Bull” carved on the eastern and western entrance of the palace are critical features of the palace.

The Queen’s Palace (Museum)

The building of Persepolis museum was the palace for Achaemenid Queens and is one of the oldest structures work as a museum in Iran. It consists of the main hall with twelve columns, a portico with eight columns, several adjoining chambers, and a number of identical units on either sides of a long corridor. The collection of the Persepolis Museum consists of prehistoric, Achaemenid and Islamic eras.

The Treasury

The treasury of Persepolis is located in the east of the queen’s palace, and south of the Hall of a Hundred Columns consists of a huge yard in the eastern part surrounded by several columned porticos. An archive of 750 clay tablets from Darius I, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes I, carved with Elamite language explaining rules and regulations over labor workers and taskmasters as well as their wages paid from the treasury was notably found in the Treasury.

Palace of guardians, Tomb of Artaxerxes II (404 – 359 BCE), Tomb of Artaxerxes III (359 – 338 BCE), Unfinished Gate, Army road, Stone Well, Stone pool, Royal Hill, are among other places and structures of Persepolis.

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Chogha Zanbil is a ziggurat dedicated to Inshushinak, the Elamite god. Ziggurat is a kind of stepped pyramid that its origin goes back to religion and the place of gods among human in Mesopotamia and areas around it like southwest of Iran.

Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat is one of the major archaeological sites in Iran that was created by the Elamite king Untash-Napirsha as a religious building around 13th century BC. According to the inscriptions on the exterior of Chogha Zanbil bricks, the whole construct was dedicated to Inshushinak, the lord of Elamite and Susa.

The ziggurat has a 100 * 100 m (330*330 ft.) base that serves as both a temple and a tomb.

It consists of five separately built concentric levels with varying elevation and each level was constructed directly from the ground.

This form of architecture (each level built from the ground and not over the previous layer) is what differentiates Chogha Zanbil and Mesopotamia ziggurats.

Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat Plan & Architecture

The top of temple was where the most important cultic rituals were performed. There were four gates with the southwestern gate being the main one. It was named imperial gate by Professor Roman Ghirshman (French archaeologist) which was connected to the top by side stairs. Only King and first-rate clergies were allowed to walk in these stairs. On both sides of the entrance gate, the statues of guardian bulls and winged griffins glazed in terracotta were placed.

Mud brick at the ancient Elamite complex of Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat

The monument was constructed using firebricks for the casing of structure and sun-dried bricks as filler. In the past, the exterior of the monument was decorated with blue and green glazed firebricks, inlaid ivory mosaics as well as opaque glass mosaics depicting prancing creatures.

Around the main ziggurat were other small shrines that were dedicated to other Elamite gods, the holy city was also protected by three layers of defensing walls.

Today, Chogha Zanbil lies approximately 40 km southeast of Susa and Khuzestan province. In 1979, UNESCO registered it as the first world heritage of Iran.

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