Mud brick at the ancient Elamite complex of Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat – Khuzestan Province, Iran
Photo by alexreynolds / ShutterStock

By the historic Iran, we mean the time about a century and a half before the Old Persian language was decoded. The decipherment of cuneiform and its alphabet has made a major revolution in reading the ancient inscriptions and scriptures. This helped archeologists understand that the official Iranian history dates back to 2500 years ago which is around the beginning of the Achaemenid era (550-330 B.C.). Before this era, the history of Iran is limited to the civilization of Elam (Elamite: 2700-539 B.C.) and Medes (678-549 B.C.). and their roles in the formation of the first great empire of the world i.e. Achaemenid Empire.

The history and culture of Iran has been always important in the course of world history, mainly because of the country’s geographical location. Each dynasty in Iran has had a great impact on religion, writing, architecture, culture, and the civilization of the ancient world.

The important issue in Iranian history is the relation of nomadic tribes and residents and their effects on the designation and dethronement of rulers. In general, it can be noted that the establishment of new Iranian dynasties happened either by conflicts between indigenous people or by the invasion of foreign tribes/nations. The entry of these tribes into Iran was always accompanied by conflict, war, and bloodshed with the locals. However, they brought their own culture and art to Iran and combined them with the local culture and art as well. The result of this combination was the emergence of a more powerful and advanced government. It should be mentioned that the study of culture and politics in Iran is not possible unless we get to know

Elam

In order to understand historic Iran, we have to start with Elamites, the indigenous people of the Iran plateau. Elamites included large powers in the Middle East such as Babylon, Sumer, and Assyria. The Assyrian inscriptions show the power of Elam and present Iran as a country that has had civilization since 3500 B.C.

Elamites chose Susa as their capital and ruled over the regions of Khuzestan, Lorestan, and Bakhtiari mountains but were overthrown by the Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal in 645 B.C. The folk of Aryan was divided into several tribes once they immigrated to Iran Plateau and each of them scattered in different parts of the Plateau. The most important Aryan tribes were Medes, Persis, and Parthia.

Medes Dynasty

At the beginning of the 7th century B.C., Diocese initiated the Medes Dynasty with Ecbatana as the capital, inhabited in Azerbaijan and Kurdistan. Several years later, they managed to eliminate the great Mesopotamian power i.e. Assyrians, but they were eventually dethroned by the tribe of Persis.

Achaemenid Dynasty

The Persis people established the great Achaemenid Empire ruled first by Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C. During this period, Iran reached its political power peak and its greatest geographical territory. The ruling kings managed to eliminate Babylon and had numerous wars with the Greeks.

At the time of Darius and Xerxes, the Achaemenid Empire was stabilized and reached its climax. However, like any other dynasties, they suffered from internal disputes and decay of power. Eventually, they were dethroned by the Greek army ruled by the Great Alexander in 330 B.C.

Clay impression of Seleucid – National Museum of Iran
Photo by Ibrahim Khadem Bayyat / Publisher: ICHTO

Seleucid Dynasty

After the death of Alexander, his territory was divided among his commanders and Iran fell into the hands of Seleucus and his successors for 73 years. Some historians prefer to call this period the Interval Era because of the introduction of the philhellenic culture (Greek culture) to Iran and its impacts on Iranian art and civilization.

Parthian Dynasty

The Parthian managed gradually to remove some areas from the domination of the Seleucids and eventually, in 247 B.C., Arsaces I founded the Parthian dynasty lasting its power until 224 A.D. i.e. for 471 years. The Parthian government was the only Iranian power that had a Feudal system of governing.

The most salient features of this era were freedom of speech and religious tolerance. The Parthians are also known for their numerous attrition battles against Romans; the wars that were mostly fruitless and did nothing but to weaken the country. The Parthian governance which is known as the longest dynasty in Iran was finally destroyed by Ardashir Babakan– the founder of the Sassanid Empire- after about five centuries of the ruling.

Silver coins of Parthain and Sasanian
Photo by Ibrahim Khadem Bayyat / Publisher: ICHTO

Sassanid Dynasty

Sassanid, as the last pre-Islamic dynasty in Iran, came to the throne in the city of Persis whose inhabitants called it Iranshahr and considered themselves the descendants of the Achaemenid. The Sassanid dynasty began its governance around 224 A.D. by Ardashir Babakan but unlike Parthians, it was ruled through a central government.

The official religion in this period was Zoroastrianism that was not separate from the ruling system, leading to high power for the Magus and the Zoroastrian priests. The Sasanians reigned over Iran for 427 years with its Kings interested in luxurious and aristocratic life and as a result, the social gap between commoners and courtiers increased.

Besides, dissatisfaction was appeared among people due to religious rigors of Zoroastrian priests. Finally, the Sassanid government started its period of decline and was finally heavily defeated by the Arabs. With the destruction of Sassanid rule, the Islamic time in Iran began.

The post The Historic Iran appeared first on Persia Advisor.

Bisotun Inscription – Hersin, Kermanshah Province, Iran

Iranian languages are divided into three historical stages: 1. Old Iranian, 2. Middle Iranian, and 3. New Iranian.

Old Iranian

Old Iranian languages that were spoken since Iranians were separated from other people of Aryan or Indo-European race in the second millennium BCE. These languages were dominant in all lands of Ancient Iran until the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BCE. These languages include Avestan, Sakan, Median, and Old Persian among which only written text from Old Persian and Avestan are still extant.

Middle Iranian

Middle Iranian languages were prevalent since the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BCE until centuries after Sassanid Empire was overthrown in 651 CE. Some written texts are left from this group of languages divided into Western Middle Iranian and Eastern Middle Iranian.

Western Middle Iranian include Parthian (also known as Pahlawani or Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian (also known as Pahlavi or Sassanid Pahlavi). Nonetheless, Eastern Middle Iranian languages were prevailed until the 13^th century CE and comprise Bactrian, Khwarazmian, Sogdian, and Saka languages.

New Iranian languages

New Iranian languages gradually became dominant in various parts of Iran after the Arab conquest. Although some of New Iranian languages were spoken concurrent with some Middle Iranian languages, some structural progresses differentiated them from each other.

Iranian Languages at a Glance
Infographic by Parinaz Ghashghaie

Farsi

Farsi is the most important Iranian language. It has been the official language of the Iranian since Saffarid dynasty (9th century) and has been gradually replaced with other languages of middle Iran and it is common in various regions of the world, from India to Europe and from Aral Sea to Persian Gulf. In 10 th century, Farsi was developed in India and Asia Minor by Ghaznavid and Seljuq Dynasties respectively. Farsi language was also common in Ottoman Empire and some of their kings composed Farsi poems. As the colonialism spread in eastern countries, the importance and dominance of Farsi language was reduced. Today, Dari Perdian is common in Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Iran. Since early 20th century, Farsi language found a separate path in each of these countries. The common Farsi language which is currently in use in Tajikistan, there are many Russian words and it is written with Russian alphabet as well. There are Pashto words in current Farsi language of Afghanistan as well as French words in common Farsi language of Iran.

Other New Iranian languages and dialects

Based on geographical and structural affinities, other New Iranian languages and dialects, which count hundreds, are divided into Western and Eastern New Iranian. Western New Iranian languages and dialects involve:

1. Central Iran dialects (prevalent in Isfahan, Tehran, Hamadan, and Yazd regions)
2. Languages and dialects of the Caspian bank (Gilaki, Mazanderani, and dialects of Semnan region)
3. Languages and dialects of Northwest Iran (Tati, Talysh, and Azerbaijani)
4. Languages and dialects of Southwest Iran (Sivandi, Lurish, and dialects of Fars province)
5. Southeast Iran Languages and dialects (Larestani, Bashagardi, Kumzari)
6. Kurdish
7. Zaza and Gorani
8. Balochi.

Eastern New Iranian Languages and dialects include:

1. Ossetian
2. Pashto
3. Ormuri and Parchi
4. Munji
5. Yaghnobi
6. Languages and dialects of Pamir region.

Local languages are spoken in local media of varied regions but, Farsi is the only educational language in all Iranian schools and universities.

Farsi writing system

Cuneiform was the earliest writing system in Iran. Iranians then used Parthian Pahlavi scripts in the Parthian era and Sassanian Pahlavi scripts during the Sassanid era. After the rise of Islam, Farsi scripts were shaped. Farsi alphabet has the same basis as Arabic alphabet. However, in the Farsi Alphabet four novel letters are added; /ɡ/(گ), /tʃ/ (چ), /p/ (پ), /ʒ/(ژ). Although modern Iranian calligraphy borrows from Kufic Arabic, Iranians have been a major role in the development of Islamic calligraphy. Iranians developed Farsi alphabet based on their language needs. Since the ninth century CE, Pahlavi script was gradually substituted with Persian alphabet because of its usage in court letters. Persian alphabet has 32 scripts.

The post Language and Dialect appeared first on Persia Advisor.

Nasir Al-Mulk Mosque – Shiraz, Fars Province, Iran

The architecture of pre-Islamic Iran is divided into two styles of “Parsian” and “Parthian”.

Parsian Style

it is the first architectural style in Iran starting from Achaemenid era until the invasion of Alexander (from 6th to 4th B.C). Rectangular spaces with columned halls, construction of buildings on platform, introverted style, using wooden ceilings, carved stones, plinth and capital, decoration of entrance and glazed tile in interior sectors are among the main features of Parsian architecture.

Parthian Style

As the name suggests, Parthian Style is the architecture used by the Parthian, it includes diversity in patterns, introverted style, symmetry in construction of palaces and temples, increase in the height of buildings, curved arches and domes, squinches below the domes, using local materials like rubble, adobe, brick, mud, and stucco work.

Iran’s Architecture from the Advent of Islam to Seljuk (6^th to 11^th centuries)

In spite of the advent of Islam, for years, Iran’s architectural style was dependent on the past elements. After that, Muslim artists introduced new forms, buildings, and constructs like mosque, school, bridge, castle and caravanserai with respect to previous artistic features especially Sassanid ones and inspired Islamic mind-set.

At the beginning of Islamic time, more attention was paid to the construction of mosque. The mosques usually had simple structures, but from this time, we witnessed the rise of Muqarnas decorative designs (decorations made of brick, tile, stone, plaster and wood) as an ornament of the mosque. The Muqarnas decorative styles used in Gonbad-e Qabus tower is one of the earliest examples of it in 10th century. Besides, Ribat-i Mahi, contemporary to Gonbad-e Qabus tower, has muddy brick and stucco decorations as well and acts as a precedent for the more lavish decorations of Seljuk and Ilkhanate Eras.

Iran’s Architecture from Seljuk to Timurid (11^th to 15^th Centuries)

Seljuk dynasty (11th century) is one of the most outstanding periods of Iran’s architecture. The construction of schools was popular in this time and many schools were built in the cities of Baghdad, Neyshabur, Marv, Rey and Hyrcania (current Gorgan). The plans of most of the buildings in this era was Four-Iwan design (Chahar Iwani) with stucco and brick as their prominent decorations. Iwan is a rectangular hall or space, usually vaulted, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open. They are mostly build in exterior space of the buildings having entrance/ exit spaces. Different buildings such as mosque, school, tomb and caravanserai were constructed in this era as well. The splendour and glory of Seljuk architecture are completely visible in Jameh mosque of Isfahan. Although, Jameh mosque of Isfahan is the result of continual construction, reconstruction, additions and renovations of 15 centuries of Islamic Era, the most beautiful and important part of the mosque belongs to Seljuk Dynasty. It is interesting to know that the use of tile as a decorative element has become popular since the end of 10th century. The oldest examples are the tiles of Kharraqan towers in Qazvin which were built in Seljuk Dynasty.

Preserving the Seljuk architectural styles including Four-Iwan design, Ilkhanate architecture entered a new stage; Iwan became higher with narrow width and the walls got narrower as well. Decorations like stucco, tile work and brick with special patterns adorned buildings. Mihrabs of Isfahan Jameh Mosque, Urmia and Oshtorjan mosques are the obvious proofs of the mastery in stucco art in that era.

During Timurid dynasty, the art of mosaic tiling reached its zenith, it is the art of the assembling of small pieces of coloured tiles to make an image. Mosques like Goharshad in Mashhad, Blue in Tabriz, Khargerd Ghiasieh School in Khorasan and some buildings in Herat and Bukhara show the importance and application of this art in religious buildings.

In this era, Grand Khorasan in east of Iran played an important role in development of architecture as well. Khorasan was the origin of lots of innovations in architecture that spread it to other parts of the country. Two-Iwan style was used in Khorasan for the first time and it was one of the first cities that the traces of turquoise tile are found in, this style can be observed in Mosques of Zuzan, Gonabad and Forumad.

Iranian Architecture Infographic / Historic Imam Mosque – Isfahan, Isfahan Province, Iran
Photo by Alexandre Rotenberg / Shutterstock
Infographic by Negar Ganji

Iran’s Architecture from Safavid to the Contemporary Era

The 16th and 17th centuries are known as the period of flourishment of Islamic arts in Iran. In the shadow of the support of Safavid’s kings, art and architecture advanced drastically. The majority of buildings in Safavid era such as mosques, schools, and caravanserais were constructed in a four-Iwan style and Muaraq (Mosaic) and Haft Rang (Seven-Coloured) tiles were the main decorations used in the buildings, the template of tiles were square which were glazed and seven colors were used to design them. Calligraphy on tile became common in decoration of religious buildings as well. Public places like mosque, bridge, bathhouse, water reservoir and specially caravanserai were built more than ever. Amin Abad caravanserai in Isfahan, Deh-bid caravanserai on the road of Isfahan to Shiraz and the numerous Abbasi caravanserais built all over the country were important caravanserais of this period.

After the fall of Safavid Dynasty, the same architectural style of that time continued like before but it was not as glorious as before. Kalat Naderi Palace (Khorshid Palace) in Khorasan province (Afsharid era) and Vakil complex in Shiraz (Zandiyeh era) are outstanding buildings of this period. After this period and with the beginning of Qajar Reign, architecture was the centre of attention again. Some of the buildings from Qajar era like Al-Nabi Mosque in Qazvin, the Haj Ali Agha complex in Kerman, Imam Mosque, Sepahsalar Mosque and school in Tehran, as well as Golestan palace are the examples of the breathtaking architecture of Qajar era.

Contemporary Architecture

The contemporary architecture of Iran starts from early 19th century and continues up to now. Architectural structures of buildings in this time were the combination of traditional and western architecture styles which were witnessed in constructs like Shahrbani Palace, Marble Palace and Post Office building of Tehran, or modern architectural style was entirely used.

The post Iranian Architecture appeared first on Persia Advisor.

The Anahita temple is a place of respect and worship dedicated to water Goddess, Anahita, situated in Kangavar, Kermanshah province.  In ancient Persian, Anahita is one of the Iranian goddesses, the Guardian angel of springs and rain that is known for being the Water goddess. Since she is associated with water, she becomes the symbol of fertility, healing and wisdom. The goddess Anahita is equivalent of Ishtar in Semites and Artemis in Greek mythology.

There are several theories about this temple. For the first time Isidore of Charax, the Greco Roman geographer mentioned that perhaps this temple is dedicated to Artemis, which as it was mentioned in Iran is known as Anahita. In history, this structure was known with different names like Shirin Palace, Khosro Parviz Palace and Ghasr ol Ghosous that mean Pirate palace. Therefore, for a long time all there was to this place was a series of theories and speculations. Eugene Flandin and Pascal, two European orientalists were the first historians who tried to draw the plan of this temple. They used the plan of Palmyra temple in Syria as their base plan, a plan that includes a platform that the whole construct is built upon, and three rows of columns and a roofed inner section that dominates the central section of the temple. This plan is the common plan of Greek temples with the usual architecture known as Doric and Corinthian that are two of the three style of ancient Greek architecture.

For the first time Isidore of Charax, the Greco Roman geographer mentioned that perhaps this temple is dedicated to Artemis, which as it was mentioned in Iran is known as Anahita.

What is witnessed in Anahita temple is the result of cultural exchange between Iranian and Greek made in a span of time between Achaemenian and Parthian. Based on Roman Ghirshman, the French archeologist, and Louis Vandenberg, the Belgian archeologist, the temple is attributed to Anahita and was built at the time of Seleucid Empire in 200 BC. Ernest Herzfeld, the German archaeologist and Hasan Pirnia the Iranian researcher attribute this building to Parthian era.  As it was mentioned, the temple, like all other constructs of this Era, was built on a platform. The structure includes rows of thick columns with the exception of the northern side and the two passages of southern stairs. This structure is a foursquare in an area of about 224×209 m on a hill that is 32 meter in height. The main material used in its construction is stone that have been beautifully carved and applied in some sections like the columns. It seems the columns were considered as the fence and decorative protectors of the place. Each column consists of a capital, a plinth and the body or shaft of the column, and are about 354 centimeters in height with a diameter of about 144 centimes. The entrance of this structure is located on the South and North-East sides. The one on the Sothern side has a two-sided stair 154 meter in length and the one on the North East side of the place has a one-sided stair.

In 1968, the Kangavar hill was excavated and about 43000m2 of historical lands were found.  From the magnificent Temple of Anahita just some broken carved capitals are remained. This site was recorded as National Heritage in 1931.

The post Anahita Temple appeared first on Persia Advisor.

In some parts of the province people, especially Qashqai tribes, speak Turkish, while in some other parts, the Arabs speak Arabic. Because of the geographical extent of the province, its climate varies in the northern and southern regions. In highlands, the climate is mild; in the valleys and lowlands, it is moderate and warm, while in the southern parts of the province, the winters and summers are moderate and hot, respectively.

Historically, the Persian who formed their own local government under the support of the Medes in Pars (current Fars), became gradually more powerful and eventually Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire (550-330 B.C.), overthrew the Median Empire (678-549 B.C.). Cyrus and his successors formed a vast empire of the time and developed their power using a set of organized and decisive laws. The Achaemenid kings established and chose several cities as their capital such as Takht-e Jamshid or Persepolis, Susa, Babylon, and Ecbatana (Hamedan).

The palaces of the Achaemenid rulers are among the most significant masterpieces of ancient architecture, which their remains are in the ancient city of Parseh. When Babylon and Susa were under siege, Alexander the Macedonian attacked Persepolis, plundering, killing people, and firing the Achaemenid palaces. Years later during the Parthian Empire (247 B.C. – 224 A.D.), Darabgerd, a city in Fars province, was one of the centers of power. As the Parthian Empire declined, Ardashir Babakan rose in revolt, the man who finally founded the Sassanid Empire (224-651 A.D.).

Ya’qūb-i Layth-i Saffārī (Jacob) was the first Emir of the Saffarid Dynasty (861-1003) who seized Fars and chose Shiraz as his capital. Several dynasties including Buyid (934-1062), Seljuk (1037-1194), Salghurids (1148-1282), Mongol (1206-1368), Muzzafarid (1314-1393), Safavid (1501-1736), Afsharid, (1736-1796), and Zand (1751-1794) dominated also over the region. During the governance of Karim Khan Zand (reign: 1751-1779), a magnificent peace and prosperity were established in Fars, while in contrast, the province was damaged and destroyed significantly later due to the wars by Lotf Ali Khan Zand (reign: 1789-1794) and Mohammad Shah Qajar (reign: 1834-1848).

The land of Fars, both during the pre-Islamic and Islamic era, was the center of civilization and culture, containing a great number of historical monuments. Fars was in fact the first center where Persian civilization and culture were developed.

Out of its remained historical monuments and buildings include Persepolis, Pasargad, the historical city of Istakhr, Naqsh-e Rustam, Bishapur, Shapur cave, and the palaces and fire temples of Ardeshir. Importantly, Persepolis, Pasargad, Eram Garden, The Sassanid Archeological Landscape have been registered in UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The collection of Zandieh and Qajar constructs including Arg of Karim Khan, mosque and bathroom of Vakil, Nasir al-Mulk Mosque, and Qavam House as well as the shrine of Ahmad ibn Musa (Shah Cheragh) are among other important tourist attractions in the city of Shiraz.

The most important handicrafts in Fars province include wood carving, carpet weaving, glass blowing (in Meymand city), repoussage, handmade Khorjin (saddle), and Give-Doozi (in the city of Abadeh). Known native foods also include Kufteh Holoo, Kooft Sabzi, Salad Shirazi, Shirin polo (sweet rice), especial Aush for breakfast (Sabzi), Aush Kardeh, and Kalam polo Shirazi (cabbage and rice). When it comes to figures, Mansur al-Hallaj (the Persian mystic and poet) and two valuable Persian poets i.e. Saadi and Hafez are among the past celebrities of Fars province.

The post Fars appeared first on Persia Advisor.