Iran After Islam – Quran Naskh Script, 13 Century AD
Photo by Ibrahim Khadem Bayyat / Publisher: ICHTO

During 635-641 A.D., Iran became the target of the Muslim Arabs who were conquering the neighboring lands. In a series of battles such as Al-Qādisiyyah, Al-Mada’in, and Nahavand, Iran was defeated by the Arabs during the Sassanid Empire. As the Arabs advanced across Iran, the Sassanid Empire got gradually closer to demise as the local rulers and peasants were not satisfied with the empire system and the existing economic and social gaps and therefore, they made a compromise with Arabs with no war and serious resistance.

After the advent of Islam, for two centuries, Iran experienced one of the most sensitive periods of its history. Arabs entrance to the country and the encounter of their cultural, social, and economic structures with locals’, influenced significantly the country which can be observed in today’s history as well. It is worth mentioning that the Arabs did not insist that the Iranian should convert to Islam but the Iranians gradually converted to it by themselves and the fire temples in central and southern areas of this land were burning during several centuries.

The fertile lands, huge wealth, and Iran’s suitable geographical location appealed to be the main motivations for the Arabs who were searching for a place to immigrate. The culture of these two nations was gradually blended and the Iranian-Islamic culture emerged accordingly. One of the biggest impacts of Arab immigration was the development of urbanism, a tendency that began during the Sassanid Empire but was expanded and flourished in the Islamic era.

Nasir Ol Molk Mosque, 19 Century AD, Shiraz, Fars Province, Iran
Photo by Alexander Mazurkevich/ Shutterstock

The First Two Centuries of Islam

The first two centuries after the advent of Islam in Iran is known by the slow conversion of locals to Islam, numerous political and religious movements and the lack of an independent government. In Umayyad time, Iranians did not experience appropriate economic and cultural conditions which were mainly because of the Arab racism who felt superior against the Iranians. Such led to the establishment of anti-Umayyad movements.

In this time, many Shiite elites and holy figures of the country immigrated to various parts especially to the impassable land of Tabaristan to escape from the Umayyad rulers. This is one of the reasons behind the existence of numerous holy shrines scattered all over in Iran.

In 749 A.D., the Umayyad ruling over the Islamic lands came to its end by the rebellion of Abu Muslim and Abbasid Caliphs. During the Abbasid caliphs and rulers, Iranians who were good at administrative positions found their way in the court of the rulers. Having power and influence in the court led drastically to the condition improvement of the Iranians. At the same time, there were some movements against Abbasid Caliphate such as political independence which were all suppressed.

The Abbasid’s golden age was during the governance of Harun Al-Rashid. After Harun, Abbasid became weaker and the Caliphs had to hand over some parts of Iran to their agents to provide the needed funding of their courts. One of these parts was the Great Khorasan that included the Sistan region as well.

Finally, in the ninth century and after two centuries of silence, the first semi-independent government was established entitled the Tahirid dynasty (821-873 A.D.). Although it was a short dynasty in length, it paved the way for the upcoming dynasties to gain power with the main goal of freedom.

Iran After Islam – Brass candlestick, 17 Century AD
Photo by Ibrahim Khadem Bayyat / Publisher: ICHTO

Iran After the Tahirid Dynasty

After the overthrow of Tahirid Dynasty, 15 dynasties came to the throne, each of which with a significant role in the culture, civilization and socio-political system in Iran. During some of these dynasties such as Samanid (819-999) and Timurid (1370-1507), art and culture were highly flourished.

A Focus on architecture was made in Ilkhanate (1256-1335) and Safavid (1501-1736) Empires. From Safavid time, Shia (one of the two main branches of Islam) became for the first time the official religion of the country. During the Qajar Dynasty (1796-1925), the first instances of the country’s encounter with modernity were formed, on the other hand, Iran was influenced by the Constitutional Revolution as well, which happened under the effect of European Revolutions.

However, modernity (e.g., road construction) reached its peak in the Pahlavi Dynasty (1925-1979). In a religious-based country, insistence on modern elements that are not defined well for its followers can lead to the dissatisfaction of the people and religious figures. Such resulted in the Islamic Revolution in 1979 and the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran.

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Nasir Al-Mulk Mosque – Shiraz, Fars Province, Iran

The architecture of pre-Islamic Iran is divided into two styles of “Parsian” and “Parthian”.

Parsian Style

it is the first architectural style in Iran starting from Achaemenid era until the invasion of Alexander (from 6th to 4th B.C). Rectangular spaces with columned halls, construction of buildings on platform, introverted style, using wooden ceilings, carved stones, plinth and capital, decoration of entrance and glazed tile in interior sectors are among the main features of Parsian architecture.

Parthian Style

As the name suggests, Parthian Style is the architecture used by the Parthian, it includes diversity in patterns, introverted style, symmetry in construction of palaces and temples, increase in the height of buildings, curved arches and domes, squinches below the domes, using local materials like rubble, adobe, brick, mud, and stucco work.

Iran’s Architecture from the Advent of Islam to Seljuk (6^th to 11^th centuries)

In spite of the advent of Islam, for years, Iran’s architectural style was dependent on the past elements. After that, Muslim artists introduced new forms, buildings, and constructs like mosque, school, bridge, castle and caravanserai with respect to previous artistic features especially Sassanid ones and inspired Islamic mind-set.

At the beginning of Islamic time, more attention was paid to the construction of mosque. The mosques usually had simple structures, but from this time, we witnessed the rise of Muqarnas decorative designs (decorations made of brick, tile, stone, plaster and wood) as an ornament of the mosque. The Muqarnas decorative styles used in Gonbad-e Qabus tower is one of the earliest examples of it in 10th century. Besides, Ribat-i Mahi, contemporary to Gonbad-e Qabus tower, has muddy brick and stucco decorations as well and acts as a precedent for the more lavish decorations of Seljuk and Ilkhanate Eras.

Iran’s Architecture from Seljuk to Timurid (11^th to 15^th Centuries)

Seljuk dynasty (11th century) is one of the most outstanding periods of Iran’s architecture. The construction of schools was popular in this time and many schools were built in the cities of Baghdad, Neyshabur, Marv, Rey and Hyrcania (current Gorgan). The plans of most of the buildings in this era was Four-Iwan design (Chahar Iwani) with stucco and brick as their prominent decorations. Iwan is a rectangular hall or space, usually vaulted, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open. They are mostly build in exterior space of the buildings having entrance/ exit spaces. Different buildings such as mosque, school, tomb and caravanserai were constructed in this era as well. The splendour and glory of Seljuk architecture are completely visible in Jameh mosque of Isfahan. Although, Jameh mosque of Isfahan is the result of continual construction, reconstruction, additions and renovations of 15 centuries of Islamic Era, the most beautiful and important part of the mosque belongs to Seljuk Dynasty. It is interesting to know that the use of tile as a decorative element has become popular since the end of 10th century. The oldest examples are the tiles of Kharraqan towers in Qazvin which were built in Seljuk Dynasty.

Preserving the Seljuk architectural styles including Four-Iwan design, Ilkhanate architecture entered a new stage; Iwan became higher with narrow width and the walls got narrower as well. Decorations like stucco, tile work and brick with special patterns adorned buildings. Mihrabs of Isfahan Jameh Mosque, Urmia and Oshtorjan mosques are the obvious proofs of the mastery in stucco art in that era.

During Timurid dynasty, the art of mosaic tiling reached its zenith, it is the art of the assembling of small pieces of coloured tiles to make an image. Mosques like Goharshad in Mashhad, Blue in Tabriz, Khargerd Ghiasieh School in Khorasan and some buildings in Herat and Bukhara show the importance and application of this art in religious buildings.

In this era, Grand Khorasan in east of Iran played an important role in development of architecture as well. Khorasan was the origin of lots of innovations in architecture that spread it to other parts of the country. Two-Iwan style was used in Khorasan for the first time and it was one of the first cities that the traces of turquoise tile are found in, this style can be observed in Mosques of Zuzan, Gonabad and Forumad.

Iranian Architecture Infographic / Historic Imam Mosque – Isfahan, Isfahan Province, Iran
Photo by Alexandre Rotenberg / Shutterstock
Infographic by Negar Ganji

Iran’s Architecture from Safavid to the Contemporary Era

The 16th and 17th centuries are known as the period of flourishment of Islamic arts in Iran. In the shadow of the support of Safavid’s kings, art and architecture advanced drastically. The majority of buildings in Safavid era such as mosques, schools, and caravanserais were constructed in a four-Iwan style and Muaraq (Mosaic) and Haft Rang (Seven-Coloured) tiles were the main decorations used in the buildings, the template of tiles were square which were glazed and seven colors were used to design them. Calligraphy on tile became common in decoration of religious buildings as well. Public places like mosque, bridge, bathhouse, water reservoir and specially caravanserai were built more than ever. Amin Abad caravanserai in Isfahan, Deh-bid caravanserai on the road of Isfahan to Shiraz and the numerous Abbasi caravanserais built all over the country were important caravanserais of this period.

After the fall of Safavid Dynasty, the same architectural style of that time continued like before but it was not as glorious as before. Kalat Naderi Palace (Khorshid Palace) in Khorasan province (Afsharid era) and Vakil complex in Shiraz (Zandiyeh era) are outstanding buildings of this period. After this period and with the beginning of Qajar Reign, architecture was the centre of attention again. Some of the buildings from Qajar era like Al-Nabi Mosque in Qazvin, the Haj Ali Agha complex in Kerman, Imam Mosque, Sepahsalar Mosque and school in Tehran, as well as Golestan palace are the examples of the breathtaking architecture of Qajar era.

Contemporary Architecture

The contemporary architecture of Iran starts from early 19th century and continues up to now. Architectural structures of buildings in this time were the combination of traditional and western architecture styles which were witnessed in constructs like Shahrbani Palace, Marble Palace and Post Office building of Tehran, or modern architectural style was entirely used.

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The foundation of the Khaju Bridge refers to an older bridge dating back to the Timurid Dynasty (1370-1507) but the current bridge was completed in about 1650 during Shah Abbas II, Safavid Dynasty (1501-1736) to link two major Isfahan’s neighborhoods on the shore of the Zayahdeh Rud River. In general, the bridge measures about 133 and 12 meters in length and width, respectively.

Of note is that during the Safavid Dynasty, the bridge was called Shah Bridge (King Bridge) and Baba Rokn ol Din, because of its location in a route to the Baba Rokn ol Din Tekieh (a religious place to commemorate the martyrdom of Imam Hossein, the third Shia Imam). The bridge had also been called Hasan Abad Bridge, the name of a nearby bridge, and Shiraz Bridge since passengers crossed this bridge on their way to Shiraz City. Finally, it was entitled Khaju following the name of its neighborhood.

The Khaju Bridge functioning also as a weir consists of two floors, 26 smaller and 21 larger water channels (on the ground floor), and two-sided parallel corridors with 23 arches (on the first floor). Notably, the channels of the bridge could be closed in order to raise water for irrigation of nearby lands.

The bridge also possesses two pavilions in the middle of eastern and western sides that were called Beygar Beygi. These structures also known as Shah Neshin were used by the king (Shah Abbas II) and his family as a recreational place to enjoy the view and also as a place where they watched sailing and swimming competitions.

Today, a mere stone bench has remained of the magnificent bench that the king used in these pavilions. There are also two stone lions at two ends of the bridge that is believed they represent Bakhtiari army and Isfahan’s resistance forces during the Safavid Dynasty.

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The magnificent Jameh Mosque of Yazd City that took over 100 years to be built encompasses three historical architectural periods. First, a Sassanid (224-651 CE) fire temple was built with a structure known as ChaharTaghi; a common style for fire temples that is consisted of four pillars connected to four arches and a dome ceiling.

Second, following the advent of Islam and the beginning of Islamic-Persian art, the Sassanid ChaharTaghi was developed and turned into a mosque by the order of Garshasep during the Buyid Dynasty (934-1062). Third, when the art of designing and making mosques matured, and following the advent of the architectural style of Azari, a new construct of the mosque (the present mosque) was built during the reign of Rokn Al-Din Muhammad Ghazi in the 14th century.

Azari or the Mongol Style was used during the Ilkhanid kings (1256-1335) in Iran. The most notable feature of this style refers to its focus on height such that all buildings of this style are immensely tall with lavish decorations, implying the mindset of Mongol kings to indicate their splendor through majestic buildings. Similar to the architecture of most mosques, this mosque also consists of a portal entrance, a pair of minarets, a dome chamber, a courtyard, a Mihrab, and a praying hall.

In particular, the Jameh Mosque of Yazd has a double-layer dome with Islamic spiral motifs and an inscription over it noting “Almolk Allah” which means “the place of God”. The domed chamber of the mosque called Tabestaneh or the Summer Hall has reticulated windows and a tiled Mihrab. The tiles are decorated with Islamic motifs, the name of the Prophet Muhammad, and some verses from the holy book of the Quran.

The praying hall of the mosque has two sections, one of which used in winter and the other in spring. The portal of the mosque, following the tradition of the Timurid (1370-1507) architecture, is tall measuring about 24 meters in height and adorned with inlaid tiles. The Iwans surrounding the courtyard and the massive minarets make this mosque one of the unique examples of the Timurid architecture.

Each of the two minarets of the mosque is more than 52 meters in height and eight meters in diameter, introducing them as the highest historical minarets in Iran. Notably, the minarets were built in the Safavid Era (1501-1736) but were collapsed and rebuilt in 1934 when the mosque was registered as a national heritage by Iran’s Organization of Cultural Heritage and Handicrafts.

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Mil-e-Karat – Taybad – Khurasan

The history of building shafts goes back to pre-Islam era and the oldest available samples belong to Partian (Mil-e-Noor Abad Mamsani in Fars province) and Sasanian (Firuzabad Tower in Khorasan Razavi Province) Empires.

Shaft found a great importance in Iranian architecture after Islam and it was quickly used as a decorative structure in a way that it became a place to show different decorative arts such as brickwork and tiling. Since 1^st -5^th A. H. centuries, the shafts (which later became a pattern for building minarets as a part of mosques) were mainly built individually (Khosrogerd Minaret and Semnan Minaret), joint to the building (Arsalan Jazeb Tomb) and sometimes there was a distance between shaft and building (minaret of the mosque in Saveh Square).

Left: Khosrogerd Minaret, 12th century AD – Sabzevar, Khorasan Razavi Province, Iran
Photo by Farnaz Ghandi via Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-SA-4.0
Right: Sarban Minaret, 12th century A.D – Isfahan, Isfahan Province, Iran
Photo by Haaft via Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-SA-4.0

During Ilkhante and Timurid empires the minarets were tall. Minaret of Mozafari Jame Mosque in Kerman and minaret of Goharshad Mosque are among the minarets of Ilkhante and Timurid minarets respectively.

Considering shafts and minarets of Iran as a structure, they can be divided into two categories of single and paired. The single minarets have long body with few decorations, and in term of appearance they have three categories: cylindrical (Golpayegan Minaret), conical (Tarikhaneh Minaret in Damghan and Minaret of Semnan) and polygonal or prismatic (Minaret of Jame Mosque in Nain). The most prominent paired minarets of Iran are minarets of Jame Mosque of Yazd having the longest height (8^th & 9^th A.H. centauries).

Jam-e Mosque of Yazd Minaret – Yazd Province, Iran
Photo by Leonid Andronov/ shutterstock

After Safavid Dynasty, building tall minarets was not much common e.g. minaret of Jame Mosque of Shahrud. The minarets of Pamenar, Shah Abdul Azim, Fatima Masumeh Shrine and old Sepahsalar School from Qajar dynasty are exemplary as well.

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