Bisotun Inscription – Hersin, Kermanshah Province, Iran

Iranian languages are divided into three historical stages: 1. Old Iranian, 2. Middle Iranian, and 3. New Iranian.

Old Iranian

Old Iranian languages that were spoken since Iranians were separated from other people of Aryan or Indo-European race in the second millennium BCE. These languages were dominant in all lands of Ancient Iran until the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BCE. These languages include Avestan, Sakan, Median, and Old Persian among which only written text from Old Persian and Avestan are still extant.

Middle Iranian

Middle Iranian languages were prevalent since the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BCE until centuries after Sassanid Empire was overthrown in 651 CE. Some written texts are left from this group of languages divided into Western Middle Iranian and Eastern Middle Iranian.

Western Middle Iranian include Parthian (also known as Pahlawani or Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian (also known as Pahlavi or Sassanid Pahlavi). Nonetheless, Eastern Middle Iranian languages were prevailed until the 13^th century CE and comprise Bactrian, Khwarazmian, Sogdian, and Saka languages.

New Iranian languages

New Iranian languages gradually became dominant in various parts of Iran after the Arab conquest. Although some of New Iranian languages were spoken concurrent with some Middle Iranian languages, some structural progresses differentiated them from each other.

Iranian Languages at a Glance
Infographic by Parinaz Ghashghaie

Farsi

Farsi is the most important Iranian language. It has been the official language of the Iranian since Saffarid dynasty (9th century) and has been gradually replaced with other languages of middle Iran and it is common in various regions of the world, from India to Europe and from Aral Sea to Persian Gulf. In 10 th century, Farsi was developed in India and Asia Minor by Ghaznavid and Seljuq Dynasties respectively. Farsi language was also common in Ottoman Empire and some of their kings composed Farsi poems. As the colonialism spread in eastern countries, the importance and dominance of Farsi language was reduced. Today, Dari Perdian is common in Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Iran. Since early 20th century, Farsi language found a separate path in each of these countries. The common Farsi language which is currently in use in Tajikistan, there are many Russian words and it is written with Russian alphabet as well. There are Pashto words in current Farsi language of Afghanistan as well as French words in common Farsi language of Iran.

Other New Iranian languages and dialects

Based on geographical and structural affinities, other New Iranian languages and dialects, which count hundreds, are divided into Western and Eastern New Iranian. Western New Iranian languages and dialects involve:

1. Central Iran dialects (prevalent in Isfahan, Tehran, Hamadan, and Yazd regions)
2. Languages and dialects of the Caspian bank (Gilaki, Mazanderani, and dialects of Semnan region)
3. Languages and dialects of Northwest Iran (Tati, Talysh, and Azerbaijani)
4. Languages and dialects of Southwest Iran (Sivandi, Lurish, and dialects of Fars province)
5. Southeast Iran Languages and dialects (Larestani, Bashagardi, Kumzari)
6. Kurdish
7. Zaza and Gorani
8. Balochi.

Eastern New Iranian Languages and dialects include:

1. Ossetian
2. Pashto
3. Ormuri and Parchi
4. Munji
5. Yaghnobi
6. Languages and dialects of Pamir region.

Local languages are spoken in local media of varied regions but, Farsi is the only educational language in all Iranian schools and universities.

Farsi writing system

Cuneiform was the earliest writing system in Iran. Iranians then used Parthian Pahlavi scripts in the Parthian era and Sassanian Pahlavi scripts during the Sassanid era. After the rise of Islam, Farsi scripts were shaped. Farsi alphabet has the same basis as Arabic alphabet. However, in the Farsi Alphabet four novel letters are added; /ɡ/(گ), /tʃ/ (چ), /p/ (پ), /ʒ/(ژ). Although modern Iranian calligraphy borrows from Kufic Arabic, Iranians have been a major role in the development of Islamic calligraphy. Iranians developed Farsi alphabet based on their language needs. Since the ninth century CE, Pahlavi script was gradually substituted with Persian alphabet because of its usage in court letters. Persian alphabet has 32 scripts.

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This place is the mausoleum of Shaikh Moshref Al Din Mosleh Al Din Sa’di Shrazi, a renowned 13th century poet, built in the city of Shiraz, Fars Province. The place used to be the Shaikh’s monastery that was later turned to his mausoleum. When the Shaikh died, his monastery was completely destroyed but a small monument was built over his grave. In Zand Era, by the order of the king Karim Khan, another mausoleum was built made of brick and plaster. The massive construct was in two-stories, the lower section had a corridor that led to the second floor. On either sides of the corridor, rooms were built that Shaikh’s grave was placed in one of them. Later, in the opposite rooms other Persian poets were buried. The second floor followed the plan of the first one with one exception. As a sign of respect to the great poet, no room was built over the room that he was buried in.

The construct was restored in Qajar’s time for couple of times, in 1950, the place was changed drastically and by the hand of Iranian famous architects Mohsen Foroughi and Ali Sadeghi. The entrance of the new construct was through the place where the poet was buried. The room has eight brown pillars that are placed in front of the grave and the whole construct is covered with white stones and beautiful tiles. The construct looks like a cube from outside, but when you enter, it is an octagon with marble walls and turquois dome. The building is about 261 m2 and is located in a garden about 10000 m2. The place is covered with inscriptions of the poems of the great poet. Although it is not a very old construct, but the position of the poet makes the place very significant for Iranians.

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Radif Music of Iran (Persia), Persian Setar
Photo by Frank Middendorf / Shutterstock

The first written evidence of Persian music dates back to the Sassanid Period (224-651 CE). Barbad, a court musician of the Sassanid Empire of Persia created the first musical system in the Middle East, known as the Royal Khosravani, dedicated to the king Khosro II. Many of the current melodic figures of the Persian classical music in various tonal spaces (in Persian called Dastgah), have been survived from this period by the oral tradition.

However, many of them have been disappeared in the course of time. Radif comprises seven Dastgahs and five vocal Radifs, each with its specific number of melodies (20-40) called Gousheh. A typical performance of a Dastgahs includes prelude (Pishdaramad), introduction (Daramad), song (Tasnif), rhythmic (Chaharmezrab), dance (Reng) and a chosen number of Goushehs. of note is that Gousheh and Daramad are non-metric, while Tasnif, Pishdaramad, Reng and Chaharmezrab are rhythmic.

A typical performance of a Dastgahs includes prelude (Pishdaramad), introduction (Daramad), song (Tasnif), rhythmic (Chaharmezrab), dance (Reng) and a chosen number of Goushehs.

During the years, Iranian classical music has been combined with other musical genres (e.g., pop). Also, today the societal position of musicians in Iran is much higher than it used to be such that they are now considered artists who present their works in concerts (not just at parties like before), and this art is taught at universities and institutes. To introduce this art internationally and to value its significance, Radif of Iranian music was inscribed UNESCO in 2009 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

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Souvenirs, Gaz Isfahan, Iran

Iran has the benefit of enjoying diversity in climate, nature and tourist attractions. The same diversity is witnessed in the souvenirs that the travelers can purchase and enjoy. The main souvenirs of Iran is divided to handicrafts and edibles. The handicrafts of Iran have such variety that one cannot visit a place and not find one or more forms of handicrafts that are specified to that location. The importance of handicrafts among Iranian is so high that sometimes the cities are known with the products they make. For example, Isfahan is known for its Inlaid Work, Engraving, and Printed Fabric. Zanjan is the center of Knife and Tapestry. One can find the best kinds of Pottery and Clay dishes in Hamedan, especially Lelejin. If one is searching for patterned fabric, linen fabric and ceramic, then Yazd is the ideal place to visit. Mat weaving of Mazandaran and Gilan is famous, and the Carpet weaving of Tabriz. The tourists can find the best Aba (robe) in Bushehr, and the best prayer rug and prayer beads are found in Mashhad. The precious stone of turquois is found in Neishabour. The most beautiful and delicate needle works of Iran is the Pateh Dozi of Kerman. Last but definitely not the least is the sea related works of the southern sections of Iran.

Souvenirs, Saffron Mashhad, Iran

As it was mentioned, Iran is also known for its edible products. Gaz of Isfahan, Sohan of Qom, Saffran and barberry of Mashhad, pistachio of Damghan and Rafsanjan, Masqati of Shiraz, Baklava and Qutab of Yazd, and the Nuts of Tabriz are all the edible products of Iran internationally known and purchased. Beside the mentioned products, each city has its own edible souvenir that includes products such as the rosewater of Kashan, Kolompeh and Cumin of Kerman, Cookie of Fouman and Lahijan, Baklava of Qazvin, pastry of Kermanshah, and Date of Bam, Kerman and Southern sections of Iran.

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City Theater of Tehran, Iran

Muzafar Al Din Shah’s travel to Europe might have left the already fragile country of Iran in an even worst situation, but it also marks the start of cinema in the country. Ibrahim Khan known as Akasbashi (photographer) was among the first group of people that purchased camera and started working with them. Being fully familiar with working with a camera, he then moved to the cinemographs that by that time have been a popular technology in Europe. In 1900, Ibrahim Khan made the first movie of Iran perhaps as a test of his new camera. From this time on attention to movie making increased and 15 years later the first group of students were sent to Europe to study cinema and the art of movie making.

In 1900, Ibrahim Khan made the first movie of Iran perhaps as a test of his new camera.

Abi & Rabbi is the first Iranian feature film directed by the Ovanes Ohanian, the Armenian-Iranian director who graduated from Moscow. Khan Baba Mo’tazedi did the camerawork of the movie. Whimsical and Brother’s Revenge soon followed the first movie but failed drastically in Box Office because of negative view to the whole industry. Thus far, the movies were all silent until the Indian producers and Iranian director and actors produced Lur Girl. Under the influence of Indian movie, Iranian producers were forced to an unwanted inactivity. This influence started what is today known as commercial cinema which includes movies that are not artistically valuable but very popular among people. Up to 1965-66, this forms of movie were sole products of Iran’s film industry until thinkers such as Farokh Ghafari, Ibrahim Golestan, Ali Hatami, Masoud Kimiaei and Darius Mehrjoie came to picture and their movies took the whole industry to a new level.

Under the influence of Indian movie, Iranian producers were forced to an unwanted inactivity. This influence started what is today known as commercial cinema which includes movies that are not artistically valuable but very popular among people.

Although many might believe that the revolution of 1979 imposed limitation on Iran’s cinema, a claim that is true to an extent, but the new limitation made the directors to change their insight and focus on a more serious cinema that involved social and political matters. Iran’s movie industry proceeded like this for more than thirty years that lead to the creation of movies such as Separation and The Seller by Asghar Farhadi that has won many international awards.

Iran’s Theatre

Iran is a rich country in the art of performance, many of them might not be referred to as theatre, but they are all forms of gaining people’s attention and putting some concept or ideology across. Kouseh Bar Neshin, Siavash Khani, Mogh Koshi, Ghali Shouyan, Tazieh, Pardeh Khani, and Naghali are the most notable examples of early performance done in Iran. The Satire works of Kouseh Bar Neshin, the Tragedy of Siavash’s death in Siavash Khani, the Epic story of Darius’s victory over his enemies in Mogh Koshi, the mourning of martyrdom of Imam Hossein in Tazieh and the Epic tales of Shahnâme in Naghali and Pardeh Khani make the history of theatre in Iran, and are a proof of Iranians interest in this art. It is a source of great joy that the traditional forms of theatre are still performed in Iran, next to the modern forms of act that are based on texts and dramas.

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No country, region or population of any sort is found that is exempt from rites and rituals, which although interesting, might have traces of superstition in them. These rites and rituals stem from the cultural, social, historical, geographical as well as ideological characteristics of the society they belong. Iran is a rich country in terms of rites, each of which is rooted in a different tradition. Some have faded in the course of history, performed only regionally in some parts of Iran such as Sadeh. Some have endured the evolutions of time and are celebrated all over the country like Nowruz and Yalda. Those rituals that have their roots in ancient history of Iran and the national occasions are held based on the Solar Calendar like Yalda, Nowruz, and Sadeh. While those that are related to Islam are performed based on Lunar Calendar like Ashoura and Eid Fitr. On general, Iranian rites are divided into five groups:

1-Ancient, Mystical and Seasonal Rites

Mehregan, Yalda, Nowruz, Sadeh, and Charshanb-e Suri are example of these rites. Iranian old rites were always accompanied by happiness and cheer. The ritual held on the death of Siyavash is the sole mourning one.

2-Religios Rites

Religions of Islam, Jewism, Christianity, and Zoroastrian are close together, each having their own rituals. However, since Shiite Islam is the official religion of the country, the Islamic rituals are highlighted. The most famous of them all being the Mourning of Muharram held for the martyrdom of third Shiite Imam.

3-National Rites

National rites are held on political, social and cultural events. Iranian celebrate 22nd of Bahman, the anniversary of the revolution of Islamic Republic of Iran.

4- Family Rites

Families hold private ceremonies on different occasion such as birthday, marriage and death of a loved one.

5- Regional Rites

Regional and local rites Refers to various rites that are held on the occasion of harvest, the beginning of fishing season and some other occasions that happen in one particular region and is not shared by the whole country.

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Chelo Kabab – Persian Food, Iranian Cuisine

There is not much left from the Iranian cuisine of Pre-Islamic Iran, and the ones that remain belong to the court of kings and nobles. The best examples of such remnants are the Bronze Cup of Arjan, Khusraw Ghobadan and Ridek text, and the book of Altaj. They are more about the culture and customs related to gastronomy than the recipes and materials used in it. For example, the book of Altaj is about the life of the kings and their courts, but there is a section on food that was served in the court and the customs of celebration in the Sassanid time. The book proves that at least until the fourth or fifth century after the Islam, still these customs were popular.

Tahchin – Persian Food, Iranian Cuisine

After the fall of Sassanid rulers, Arabs were acquainted with life style of Sassanid’s king.  The presence of Iranian in Abbasid Caliph’s palace intensified this effect. The Persian Cuisine influenced the three most powerful dynasties of Seljuq, Ilkhanid, and Mughal, which ruled Iran since 13th century. However, the foreign terms seen in Persian Cuisine proves that the invaders had some effect on Iranian as well.  The use of ghara ghooroot, which is a Turkish term used to refer to dried black curd, as a flavor for different types of Aash shows the effect of Central Asia cuisine.

Aash – Persian Food, Iranian Cuisine

Most of what we know from the Iranian Cuisine is from Safavid era. Letters of chefs and the travelogues of the travelers are the main source of our knowledge over Persian cuisine. The documents written by court chefs shows a very luxurious style of cooking with recipes of different type of Polow (rice), Kuku, Aash, Dolme, and Kufte. Travelogues from Safavid dynasty, also, provide valuable information about eating habits and cuisine of the time. In Safavid court, different types of Polow and Kebab were served in large dishes that were shared among two or three guests.

Koofteh Tabrizi – Persian Food, Iranian Cuisine

The people ate with their hands and cutlery was not popular. Sherbet (Syrup) was served in large bowl as well, usually accompanied with fragrant wooden spoons. There were no napkins and guests washed their hand in silver ewer and bowel with the help of servants. The commoners system of food and cuisine was different from the court. Unlike the courtiers, they just focused on the dinners and ate simple things for breakfast and lunch. Polow, Chicken stew, and meat were the usual food of the commoners’ dinner.

Most of what we know from the Iranian Cuisine is from Safavid era. Letters of chefs and the travelogues of the travelers are the main source of our knowledge over Persian cuisine.

The luxurious foods of court of Qajar is a tale that many travelers told on their visit of the place. Foods were served on adorned fabrics that were scattered on the land, and ate with hands. Both the courtiers and commoners of Qajar time used different form of Meat, Polow, Stew, Sherbet (syrup), Sweets and Fruits.

Tea and Gaz Candy – Persian Food, Iranian Cuisine

Persian cuisine is known for excessive use of rice, emphasis on slow and low heated style of cooking, similarity in recipes, and mild flavor. Rice is an inevitable part of Iranian cuisine; Northern provinces produce most of country’s rice. The travelers that visited Safavid and Qajar court mention the Iranian’s fascination with rice and call it the National Food of Iranian. Jakob Eduard Polak, the 19th c. traveler and writer writes that Polow, Chelo and Aash are the three main dishes of Iranians that are all made with rice. Iranian usually served the polow with stew and sometimes with vegetable, adorned with Saffron, barberry, almond, pistachio, dates, and raisin.

Persian cuisine is known for excessive use of rice, emphasis on slow and low heated style of cooking, similarity in recipes, and mild flavor.

Iranian cook food slowly, and for a long time until all ingredient are cooked well. All foods, even those that are fried, are made with slow but steady heat. In Iranian cuisine most of main dishes have a similar way of producing. First, chopped onions are fried with curcuma, meat is added, and then depending on the kind of stew other ingredients are mixed. Mild flavor is another feature of all Iranian dishes. No strong flavor or spices are used in dishes. Saffron, curcuma and pepper always accompany Persian food but only in small amount.

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From the beginning of history, Iran have always been a religious country, and religion played pivotal role in it. Iran is a vast country in terms of area; therefore, only a powerful central power with religion as its basis can cause unity in society. Official religions in Iran includes Islam, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Judaism and Mandaeism. Beside Mandaeism, which is not numbered in population, other religions have a representative in Iranian parliament.

Islam

Islam is the official religion of the country. Since the Arab’s conquest of Iran, little by little, people turned to Islam and its practice spread through the country. Quran is the holly book of Muslims, and the religion has two sects of Sunni and Shi’a (Shiite). The difference was made over the succession of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. Sunni followers considered Abu Bakr, the advisor and right hand man of prophet to be his successor; however, the Shiites believed that after the death of the prophet, Ali (prophets cousin and son-in-law) should become the leader and director of Muslim. The dispute of the two group ended when Abu-Bakr finally came to power, but the bad blood remained for centuries. Since Ali and his defendants are blood related to the prophet, the followers of this sect are known to be the followers of the descendants of the prophet. About 10% of the Iranian population are Sunni Muslims and approximately 90% are Shia. The Shia has various sects itself, but most of Iranian are what is called 12-Imam Shiite that means the followers of the 12 descendant of the prophet. Shia became official religion of Iran from Safavid dynasty.

Zoroastrianism

The first official religion of Iran was Zoroastrianism, and the best and main source of knowing this religion is an ancient book known as Avesta. In the oldest section of Avesta that is attributed to Zoroaster himself,  and is known as Gahan, Zoroaster teaches his followers that there is only one God, Ahura Mazda. He advises his followers to “Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good Deeds” as the main principle of a good life. According to available inscriptions, Zoroastrian religion has been widespread in Iran since Achaemenid dynasty and realized as an official religion in Sassanid dynasty. Although, with the advent of Islam large number of Iranian converted to Islam but Zoroastrianism still has its followers in Iran.

Christianity

From the beginning of the first century B.C., Christianity spread in Iran and missionaries traveled to North West and West of the country. The Parthian rulers of Iran in that era believed in the freedom of religion, and Christians who were under prosecution in Rome found sanctuary in Iran. They built churches which many of them survived and is seen in Northwest of the country. The different sects of Christianity such as Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, and Nestorianism have their own churches and hold their ceremonies in their churches. Each Christian who travel to Iran can hold religion ceremonies in these churches.

Mandaeism

The followers of Mandaeism are called Mandaeans. They are the followers of John the Baptist, and Mandaeism is considered a gnostic religion. Their holly script is the Ginza Rba or Ginza, a collection of history, theology, and prayers. The record of their presence in the country dates back to 2000 years ago. Baptizing in flowing water is one of the most important section of Mandaeism religion. Water has a specific and holly place among the adherents, and therefore, they live in places that is close to rivers. The followers of this religion are very secretive about their faith; they do not marry outside their tradition and never advertise their religion.

Judaism

The adherents of Moses, known widely as Jews, lived in Iran from 2700 years ago, and are among religion minorities of Iran. They pray in synagogue, and the tomb of Daniel in Susa and Esther and Mordechai Mausoleum in Hamadan are among the most important pilgrimage site of Jews in the country. They have specific school, cultural centers, as well as women organization that offers services to the followers of this religion and is forbidden for the rest to use. They also have specific shops for meats and food that is prepared according to Jewish tradition and law. These centers are especially found in cities of Isfahan, Hamadan and Khuzestan.

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